Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy people
Abstract
Three studies are reported that examine the relations between personality and happiness or subjective well-being. It is argued that (a) one set of traits influences positive affect or satisfaction, whereas a different set of traits influences negative affect or dissatisfaction; (b) the former set of traits can be reviewed as components of extraversion, and the latter as components of neuroticism; and (c) personality differences antedate and predict differences in happiness over a period of 10 years, thus ruling out the rival hypothesis that temporary moods or states account for the observed relations. A model of individual differences in happiness is presented, and the separate and complementary roles of trait and adaptation-level theories in explaining happiness are discussed.
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Neuroticism correlated positively with usage of several different negative emotion word categories, including Anxiety/Fear, Sadness, Anger, and total Negative Emotions.
“Consistent with previous studies of personality and affective reactivity (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Larsen & Ketelaar, 1991), Neuroticism correlated positively with usage of several different negative emotion word categories, including Anxiety/Fear, Sadness, Anger, and total Negative Emotions (Table 1; Figure S1).”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Costa & McCrae, 1980
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BackgroundMethodComparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events
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“It has been argued that it is counter-intuitive to regard happiness and sadness as unrelated constructs ( Costa & McCrae, 1980 ) and indeed all measures of PA and NA developed prior to the PANAS have proven at least moderately negatively correlated.”
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“Costa and McCrae (1980) demonstrated the differential links between extraversion and positive affect and between neuroticism and negative affect, a finding confirmed in later studies (e.g., Emmons & Diener, 1985; Headey & Wearing, 1989; Watson & Clark, 1992) and purportedly explained by an array of…”
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“Although extraversion and neuroticism have been most closely identified with the positive affect and negative affect components of SWB, respectively (Costa & McCrae, 1980 ), there is evidence that temperament is correlated with life satisfaction as well.”
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“Affectively, these traits might influence job satisfaction through their effect on mood (Costa & McCrae, 1980) or mood at work (see Brief, 1998).”
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“Research on these characteristics continued in the years that followed, but the modern focus on these two traits is often traced to a landmark study by Costa and McCrae (1980) .”
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“These mainly crosssectional findings were confirmed in a 10-year longitudinal study by Costa and McCrae (1980).”
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“Neuroticism is associated with a general disposition toward negative affectivity and dissatisfaction (Costa & McCrae, 1980).”
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“This assumption is substantiated by findings indicating that self-reported measures of happiness are internally consistent , stable, and converge with informant and spouse reports (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999).”
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“Based on past research which has shown clear correlations between these variables and life satisfaction, we hypothesized that life satisfaction to be positively correlated with income [2], subjective health [1], extraversion [25], agreeableness [26], conscientiousness [26], domain satisfaction [21], eudemonic well-bei…”
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“…on affect and personality is the strong correlation between dispositional global positive affect and the Big Five factor Extraversion (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1980; Gross, Sutton, & Ketelaar, 1998; John, 1990; Larsen & Ketelaar, 1989; McCrae & John, 1992; Correspondence: Michelle N. Shiota,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWeinstein, N., Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.12.008 · Cited by 874 · see citing works
“…& Carver, 2002; Costa & McCrae, 1990; Scheier & Carver, 1992), stress-related appraisals (Chang, 1998; Penley & Tomaka, 2002), avoidant and active coping styles (Friedman et al., 1992; Scheier & Carver, 1992; Suls, David, & Harvey, 2006), and well-being (Andersson, 1996; Costa & McCrae, 1980).”
MethodInfluentialThe Evolving Concept of Subjective Well-Being: The Multifaceted Nature of Happiness
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“Like other researchers before him (e.g. Costa and McCrae, 1980), Tellegen (1985) noted that the positive affect dimension is closely aligned with the broad personality trait of extraversion, whereas negative affect is closely aligned with the broad personality trait of neuroticism.”
BackgroundOn the Dimensional and Hierarchical Structure of Affect
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“Positive and negative emotional responses have also been linked to different personality dimensions (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Larsen & Ketelaar, 1991; Meyer & Shack, 1989; Tellegen, 1985; Watson & Clark, 1994, 1997a), and to different neuropsychological and behavioral activation systems (Davidson, 1994, 1995; Tomarken, D…”
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“…Thus, it is possible that temperamental factors account for at least some of the observed ethnic and national differences in actual affect (Costa & McCrae, 1980; David, Green, Martin, & Suls, 1997; Diener & Lucas, 1999; Gross, Sutton, & Ketelaar, 1998; Lykken & Tellegen, 1996; McCrae,…”
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“For example, extraversion correlates with positive emotions, but not with negative emotion (Costa & McCrae, 1980).”
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“McCullough et al. (2002) showed that gratitude was correlated with each of the Big Five traits, which have themselves been linked to well-being (Barnett & Gotlib, 1988; Costa & McCrae, 1980).”
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“…traits like positive and negative affectivity, and that such personality dispositions hence should be controlled for (Brief, Burke, George, Robinson, & Webster, 1988; Costa & McCrae, 1980; Roskies, LouisGuerin, & Fournier, 1993; Schaubroeck, Ganster, & Fox, 1992; Watson & Pennebaker, 1989).”
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“Extraversion and neuroticism have been found to be related to well-being in a number of studies (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1980; Emmons & Diener, 1985), but the exact reasons for these relations are not yet firmly established (Pavot, Diener, & Fujita,”
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“Consistent with previous studies of personality and affective reactivity (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Larsen & Ketelaar, 1991), Neuroticism correlated positively with usage of several different negative emotion word categories, including Anxiety/Fear, Sadness, Anger, and total Negative Emotions (Table 1;…”
ResultAdaptational Style and Dispositional Structure: Coping in the Context of the Five‐Factor Model
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“Extraversion is known to be related to both positive emotionality and relationship closeness (Costa & McRae, 1980; Diener & Lucas, 1999; Watson & Clark, 1997).”
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“Both anxiety and depression are known to be correlated with personality, most prominently with neuroticism, but also with extraversion (Costa and McCrae, 1980; Middeldorp et al., 2005).”
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“Consistent with early formulations (e.g., Bradburn, 1969; Costa & McCrae, 1980), researchers sometimes combine PA and NA into an “affect balance” score (i.e., PA minus NA), also referred to as “hedonic level” or “hedonic balance” (Basabe et al., 2002; Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988; Diener,…”
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“Judgments of hedonic balance also confirm high stability in average levels of pleasure and displeasure ( Costa & McCrae, 1980 ).”
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“Finally, PA and NA are strongly related to Extraversion and Neuroticism personality factors, respectively (Costa & McCrae, 1980;Watson & Clark, 1992), and represent core components of the two broad personality dimensions (see also Yik, Russell, Oceja, & Fernández Dols, 2000).”
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“Moreover, extraversion is generally associated with positive affect (Costa & McCrae, 1980) and is related to self perceptions of well being (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998).”
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“Early work by Costa and McCrae (1980) showed that happiness was associated with greater Extraversion and lower Neuroticism.”
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“It is important to note that PA and NA are viewed as largely independent dimensions that may have differential (not just opposite) correlations with other variables (e.g., Costa and McCrae 1980; Tellegen 1985; Clark and Watson 1988; Watson 1988a; Watson et al. 1992; Tellegen and Waller, in press).”
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Personality and Life Satisfaction: A Facet-Level Analysis
Schimmack, U., Oishi, S., Furr, R. M., & Funder, D. C. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264292 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
“For example, Costa and McCrae (1980) demonstrated that personality measures predicted hedonic balance 10 years later.”
BackgroundWhat are the differences between happiness and self-esteem?
Lyubomirsky, S., Tkach, C., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2006) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-005-0213-y · Cited by 431 · see citing works
The evolving concept of subjective well-being: the multifaceted nature of happiness
Diener, E., Scollon, C. N., & Lucas, R. E. (2003) · Advances in cell aging and gerontology · doi:10.1016/s1566-3124(03)15007-9 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
Trait explanations in personality psychology
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1995) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410090402 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Self-citationCarver, C. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0904_2 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Martin, M. (1990) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(90)90075-l · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Quality of life: A dynamic construct
Allison, P. J., Locker, D., & Feine, J. S. (1997) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(96)00339-5 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Gross, J. J., Sutton, S. K., & Ketelaar, T. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298243005 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Tkach, C., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-005-4754-1 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
“In general, extraverts report being happier than introverts , and neurotic individuals report being less happy than emotionally stable individuals (Costa and McCrae, 1980; Costa et al., 1987; Emmons and Diener, 1985; McCrae and Costa, 1991).”
BackgroundPersonality, self-esteem, and demographic predictions of happiness and depression
Cheng, H., & Furnham, A. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00078-8 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
Teacher enthusiasm: Dimensionality and context specificity
Kunter, M., Frenzel, A., Nagy, G., Baumert, J., & Pekrun, R. (2011) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.07.001 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Rusting, C. L., & Larsen, R. J. (1997) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(96)00246-2 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Pavot, W., Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1990) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(90)90157-m · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Understanding subjective well-being: perspectives from psychology and public health
Das, K., Jones-Harrell, C., Fan, Y., Ramaswami, A., Orlove, B., & Botchwey, N. D. (2020) · Public health reviews · doi:10.1186/s40985-020-00142-5 · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Psychiatric distress and symptoms of PTSD among victims of bullying at work
Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. V. (2004) · British Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1080/03069880410001723558 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
“Enhanced levels of state negative affectivity, as well as a lowered state of positive affect, may then initiate increased use of maladaptive coping strategies in turn causing higher levels of reported psychological symptoms and psychosomatic complaints (Costa & McCrae, 1980).”
BackgroundDispositional Affect and Job Satisfaction: A Review and Theoretical Extension
Judge, T. A., & Larsen, R. J. (2001) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.2001.2973 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
“For example, Costa and McCrae (1980) measured E and N in their large longitudinal sample of adults in the Baltimore area.”
BackgroundDevins, G. M., Binik, Y. M., Hutchinson, T. A., Hollomby, D. J., Barré, P. E., & Guttmann, R. D. (1984) · The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine · doi:10.2190/5dcp-25bv-u1g9-9g7c · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Extraversion, neuroticism and susceptibility to positive and negative mood induction procedures
Larsen, R. J., & Ketelaar, T. (1989) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(89)90233-x · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Subjective Well-Being and Social Production Functions
Ormel, J., Lindenberg, S. M., Steverink, N., & Verbrugge, L. M. (1999) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1023/a:1006907811502 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
“On the side of stable characteristics, personality and social class related variables shape long-term baseline of positive and negative affect (e.g., Costa and McCrae 1980; Ormel and Schaufeli, 1991). influence exposure to life changes (e.g. Fergusson and Horwood, 1987; Ormel and Wohlfarth, 1991),…”
Background
- Authors
- Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1980
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 668-678
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2157483908
- Cited by
- 2,652
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 83 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 134 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 97 · 2017: 107 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 108 · 2014: 119 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 101
- FWCI
- 16.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- extraversion, neuroticism, subjective well-being, happiness, positive affect, negative affect, personality traits, adaptation-level theory
- MeSH terms
- Extraversion, Psychological, Happiness, Humans, Male, Neurotic Disorders, Personal Satisfaction
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