Cited by 3,322Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionFlow Experience in Various FieldsAging and Gerontology Research

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

Keyes, Corey L. M., Shmotkin, Dov, Ryff, Carol D.·2002·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007

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Abstract

Subjective well-being (SWB) is evaluation of life in terms of satisfaction and balance between positive and negative affect; psychological well-being (PWB) entails perception of engagement with existential challenges of life. The authors hypothesized that these research streams are conceptually related but empirically distinct and that combinations of them relate differentially to sociodemographics and personality. Data are from a national sample of 3,032 Americans aged 25-74. Factor analyses confirmed the related-but-distinct status of SWB and PWB. The probability of optimal well-being (high SWB and PWB) increased as age, education, extraversion, and conscientiousness increased and as neuroticism decreased. Compared with adults with higher SWB than PWB. adults with higher PWB than SWB were younger, had more education, and showed more openness to experience.

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“These two dimensions of well-being have been demonstrated to be substantively distinct [92] and factorially distinct [92,93], having arisen from two distinct philosophical traditions [68,94].”
Self-citation
The Genetic Overlap and Distinctiveness of Flourishing and the Big Five Personality Traits
Keyes, C. L. M., Kendler, K., Myers, J., & Martin, C. C. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-014-9527-2 · Cited by 51
“championed virtue, or trying to live up to standards of a good life as an individual and a citizen (Ryff 1989; Keyes et al. 2002).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Negative social interactions and incident hypertension among older adults.
Sneed, R. S., & Cohen, S. (2014) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000057 · Cited by 55
Iranian and Swedish adolescents: differences in personality traits and well-being
Kjell, O., Nima, A. A., Sikström, S., Archer, T., & Garcia, D. (2013) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.197 · Cited by 51
Flourishing of Students in a Tertiary Education Institution in South Africa
van Zyl, L. V., & Rothmann, S. (2012) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.1080/14330237.2012.10820573 · Cited by 51
“Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002) obtained a relatively high Cronbach Alpha (á) value of 0.90 in a sample of college students.”
BackgroundInfluential
Construct Validity of Ryff's Scale of Psychological Well-Being in Spanish Older Adults
Triadó, C., Villar, F., Solé, C., & Celdrán, M. (2007) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.100.4.1151-1164 · Cited by 51
Bem-estar psicológico e inteligência emocional entre homens e mulheres na meia-idade e na velhice
Queroz, N. C., & Neri, A. L. (2005) · doi:10.1590/s0102-79722005000200018 · Cited by 51
Benefit-sharing and residents’ subjective well-being in rural tourism: An asymmetric approach
Cheng, L., & Xu, J. (2021) · Journal of Destination Marketing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.jdmm.2021.100631 · Cited by 50
A Longitudinal Examination of the Association Between Meaning in Life, Resilience, and Mental Well-Being in Times of Coronavirus Pandemic
Arslan, G., & Yıldırım, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645597 · Cited by 69
“Mental well-being can be best described within Keyes’s model, which proposes that mental well-being comprises of three dimensions: emotional, psychological, and social (2002) (Keyes, 2002).”
Background
Effect of Physical-Sports Leisure Activities on Young People’s Psychological Wellbeing
Bravo, A. E. R., Oliva, Á. D. J., & Castilla, F. J. G. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.543951 · Cited by 74
“Subjective wellbeing and psychological wellbeing are outlined as the most representative constructs of both perspectives (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
Measuring positive mental health and flourishing in Denmark: validation of the mental health continuum-short form (MHC-SF) and cross-cultural comparison across three countries
Santini, Z. I., Torres-Sahli, M., Hinrichsen, C., Meilstrup, C., Madsen, K. R., Rayce, S. B., Baker, M. M., ten Have, M., Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., & Koushede, V. (2020) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-020-01546-2 · Cited by 70
“The definition builds on two longstanding philosophies in wellbeing research and positive psychology: The concept of hedonic well-being which is based on positive emotional states like happiness, and the concept of eudaimonic wellbeing which focuses on positive functioning in the individual and on social experience an…”
Background
Exploring associations between young adults’ facebook use and psychological well-being: A goal hierarchy approach
Jung, Y., Pawlowski, S. D., & Kim, H. (2016) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2016.10.005 · Cited by 49
Meaning in Life in People with Borderline Personality Disorder
Marco, J. H., Pérez, S., García‐Alandete, J., & Moliner, R. (2015) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1991 · Cited by 50
Propiedades Psicométricas de la Escala de Bienestar Psicológico y su Estructura Factorial en Universitarios Chilenos
Burgos, A. (2012) · Psicoperspectivas Individuo y Sociedad · doi:10.5027/psicoperspectivas-vol11-issue2-fulltext-196 · Cited by 50
Estudo Psicométrico preliminar da Mental Health Continuum – Short Form – for youth numa amostra de adolescentes portugueses
Matos, A. P., André, R. S., Cherpe, S., Rodrigues, D., Figueira, C., & Pinto, A. M. (2010) · Psychologica · doi:10.14195/1647-8606_53_7 · Cited by 49
The 18-item Swedish version of Ryff’s psychological wellbeing scale: psychometric properties based on classical test theory and item response theory
Garcia, D., Kazemitabar, M., & Habibi, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1208300 · Cited by 57
“…specifically, for the 18-item version, distinctive gender patterns have been established for the positive relation with others subscale—with women reporting higher ability to create deep and meaningful connections with their others (Keyes et al., 2002; Lindfors et al., 2006; Matud et al., 2019).”
Background
The association of the spiritual health and psychological well-being of teachers with their organizational commitment
Heidari, M., Hoseinpour, M., Ardebili, M., & Yoosefee, S. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00768-x · Cited by 49
“Psychological well-being entails a person’s potential for development and growth and includes feelings of personal expressiveness and accomplishment [21].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Character Strengths Predict Subjective Well-Being, Psychological Well-Being, and Psychopathological Symptoms, Over and Above Functional Social Support
Azañedo, C. M., Artola, T., Sastre, S., & Alvarado, J. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661278 · Cited by 73
“Therefore, whereas the SWB approach links well-being to life satisfaction and balance between positive and negative affect, the PWB approach formulates well-being in terms of perceived engagement with life’s existential challenges (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
Influence of fear of happiness on flourishing: Mediator roles of hope agency and hope pathways
Belen, H., Yıldırım, M., & Belen, F. S. (2019) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12279 · Cited by 64
Longitudinal health consequences of socioeconomic disadvantage: Examining perceived discrimination as a mediator.
Fuller‐Rowell, T. E., Curtis, D. S., Chae, D. H., & Ryff, C. D. (2018) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000616 · Cited by 52
Self-citation
Power Fosters Context-Independent, Analytic Cognition
Miyamoto, Y., & Ji, L. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211411485 · Cited by 53
The connection between subjective nearness-to-death and depressive symptoms: The mediating role of meaning in life
Bergman, Y. S., Bodner, E., & Haber, Y. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.078 · Cited by 49
“For example, meaning in life was connected with reduced negative emotions (Keyes et al., 2002), and was shown to buffer the effects of stress (Mascaro and Rosen, 2006).”
Background
Well-Being, Resilience and Social Support of Athletes with Disabilities: A Systematic Review
Mira, T., Costa, A. M., Jacinto, M., Diz, S., Monteiro, D., Rodrigues, F. F., Matos, R. M. N., & Antunes, R. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13050389 · Cited by 65
“Well-being has been studied in two streams, one according to happiness (subjective well-being representing hedonic well-being) and another according to human potential (psychological well-being representing eudaimonic well-being) [10–14].”
Background
Heritage and pathways to wellbeing: From personal to social benefits, between experience identity and capability shaping
Gallou, E. (2022) · Wellbeing Space and Society · doi:10.1016/j.wss.2022.100084 · Cited by 65
“…and hedonic wellbeing: the first is linked with meaning, and self-realization in life (Ryan and Deci, 2001) as well as positive functioning (Keyes, 2002), while the latter focuses mainly on pleasure attainment and pain avoidance (Kahneman et al., 1999; Keyes et al., 2002) and one ’ s…”
BackgroundMethod
On the Relation Between Over-Indebtedness and Well-Being: An Analysis of the Mechanisms Influencing Health, Sleep, Life Satisfaction, and Emotional Well-Being
Ferreira, M. B., de Almeida, F., Soro, J. C., Herter, M. M., Pinto, D. C., & Silva, C. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.591875 · Cited by 61
Adult Attachment and Psychological Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Personality
Marrero, R. J., Blanco-Hernández, P. J., & Hernandez-Cabrera, J. A. (2018) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-018-9297-x · Cited by 63
“Both types of well-being have been shown to be distinct components of mental health (Chen et al. 2013; Keyes et al. 2002).”
Background
Meaning in Life and Wellbeing
Steger, M. F. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316339275.008 · Cited by 72
“…life is associated with more frequent and intense experiences of positive emotions and vitality (Chamberlain and Zika, 1988 ; Kennedy et al., 1994 ; Keyes et al., 2002 ; King et al., 2006 ; Ryff , 1989 ; Steger et al., 2006 ; Steger et al., 2008c ; Steger et al., 2015a ; Zika and Chamberlain,1992).”
Background
The Big Five personality domains as predictors of social wellbeing in Iranian university students
Joshanloo, M., Rastegar, P., & Bakhshi, A. (2012) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407512443432 · Cited by 54
Bienestar subjetivo y psicosocial: explorando diferencias de género // Subjective and psychosocial well-being: exploring gender differences
Zubieta, E., Muratori, M., & Fernández, O. (2012) · doi:10.22199/s07187475.2012.0001.00005 · Cited by 48
Positive psychological well‐being and cardiovascular disease: Exploring mechanistic and developmental pathways
Boehm, J. K. (2021) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12599 · Cited by 61
“Different taxonomies of well‐being have been proposed (Diener, Suh, et al., 1999; Keyes et al., 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Steptoe, 2019), the most prominent of which include hedonic well‐being (colloquially referred to as happiness and assessed via positive emotions and satisfaction with life) and eudaimonic well‐being…”
Background
Positive Mental Health, Stressful Life Events, and Suicide Ideation
Brailovskaia, J., Teismann, T., & Margraf, J. (2020) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000652 · Cited by 66
“Individuals with high levels of PMH tend to view their lives as having purpose, often experience positive affect, and are likely to be self-accepting (Keyes et al., 2002): In this sense, PMH – as assessed with the Positive Mental Health scale (PMH; Lukat, Margraf, Lutz, van der Veld, & Becker, 2016) – has been found t…”
Background
Flourishing During Emerging Adulthood from a Gender Perspective
de la Fuente, R., Jiménez, Á. P., Sánchez‐Queija, I., & Elgarresta, I. L. (2019) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-019-00204-9 · Cited by 63
“Flourishing is a modern and key concept in the field of positive psychology (Huppert and So 2009; Seligman 2011), used for the first time by Keyes (2002) to describe high levels of well-being (Hone et al.”
Background
Organizational sustainability: a redefinition?
Zawawi, N. F. M., & Wahab, S. A. (2019) · Journal of strategy and management · doi:10.1108/jsma-08-2018-0077 · Cited by 71
Personality and the Gender Gap in Self-Employment: A Multi-Nation Study
Obschonka, M., Schmitt‐Rodermund, E., & Terracciano, A. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103805 · Cited by 49
“, [46,55,50]), this measure has been validated, correlates with NEO traits scales, and shows high internal reliability coefficients.”
BackgroundMethod
Quantitative evidence for wellbeing benefits from a heritage-in-health intervention with hospital patients
Thomson, L., Ander, E. E., Menon, U., Lanceley, A., & Chatterjee, H. (2012) · International Journal of Art Therapy · doi:10.1080/17454832.2012.687750 · Cited by 47
“Qualitative research undertaken by nurses showed that museum objects were beneficial in uncovering emotions and acting as a vehicle for communication in female participants facing gynaecological cancer diagnosis (Lanceley et al., 2011).”
Background
Aggression and psychological well-being of adolescent Tae Kwon Do participants in comparison with hockey participants and a non-sport group
Steyn, B., & Roux, S. (2009) · doi:10.4314/ajpherd.v15i1.44636 · Cited by 47
New Evidence on the Effects of Fraternity and Sorority Affiliation During the First Year of College
Martin, G. L., Hevel, M. S., Asel, A. M., & Pascarella, E. T. (2011) · Journal of College Student Development · doi:10.1353/csd.2011.0062 · Cited by 46
Re‐thinking tourist wellbeing: An integrative model of affiliation with nature and social connections
Chang, L., Moyle, B., Vada, S., Filep, S., Dupré, K., & Liu, B. (2024) · International Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.1002/jtr.2644 · Cited by 53
The Importance of Measuring Mental Wellbeing in the Context of Psychological Distress: Using a Theoretical Framework to Test the Dual-Continua Model of Mental Health
Stephens, J. M., Iasiello, M. P., Ali, K., van Agteren, J. E., & Fassnacht, D. B. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13050436 · Cited by 50
“dual-continua model of mental health, as outlined by Keyes [12,13], being one of the”
Background
Benefits of nostalgia in vulnerable populations
Wildschut, T., & Sedikides, C. (2022) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2022.2036005 · Cited by 62
“across the six well-being dimensions, consistent with evidence that these dimensions reflect a single underlying factor (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
An Integrated Look at Well-Being: Topological Clustering of Combinations and Correlates of Hedonia and Eudaimonia
Pancheva, M. G., Ryff, C. D., & Lucchini, M. (2020) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-020-00325-6 · Cited by 63
“The Mental Health Continuum approach (Keyes 2002, 2007) categorizes individuals as “flourishing”, “languishing” or experiencing “moderate mental health” based on whether they score in 1 3 the upper, medium or low tertiles of a number of hedonic, eudaimonic, and social wellbeing items.”
MethodSelf-citation
Corpus-Assisted Discourse Studies
Ancarno, C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108348195.009 · Cited by 49
A self‐determination theory approach to health and well‐being in the workplace: Results from the sixth European working conditions survey in Spain
Gómez‐Baya, D., & Lucia‐Casademunt, A. M. (2018) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12511 · Cited by 64
Does Internal or External Locus of Control Have a Stronger Link to Mental and Physical Health?
Gore, J. S., Griffin, D. P., & McNierney, D. A. (2016) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-016-0361-y · Cited by 50
Caring for frail elders with musculoskeletal conditions and family caregivers’ subjective well-being: The role of multidimensional caregiver burden
Lu, N., Liu, J., & Lou, V. W. Q. (2015) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2015.07.002 · Cited by 46
Attachment, Social Support Satisfaction, and Well-Being During Life Transition in Emerging Adulthood
Lane, J., & Fink, R. (2015) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000015592184 · Cited by 46
Are Girls more Resilient to Gender-Conformity Pressure? The Association Between Gender-Conformity Pressure and Academic Self-Efficacy
Vantieghem, W., & Houtte, M. V. (2015) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0509-6 · Cited by 54
Profiles of psychological well‐being in a sample of Australian university students
Bhullar, N., Hine, D. W., & Phillips, W. J. (2013) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12022 · Cited by 59
The Association Between Sensation Seeking and Well-Being Among College-Attending Emerging Adults
Ravert, R. D., Kim, S. Y., Schwartz, S. J., Weisskirch, R. S., Zamboanga, B. L., Ham, L. S., Donnellan, M., & Bersamin, M. (2013) · Journal of College Student Development · doi:10.1353/csd.2013.0004 · Cited by 46
The effects of caregiver social connections on caregiver, child, and family well‐being.
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Emotional Intelligence and Affective Intensity as Life Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being Predictors on Nursing Professionals
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Revisiting the Happy-Productive Worker Thesis from a Eudaimonic Perspective: A Systematic Review
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“Research on well-being has increased considerably in recent decades in fields such as management or organizational psychology [13,14].”
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Effectiveness of a Mindfulness-Based Program on School Children's Self-Reported Well-Being: A Pilot Study Comparing Effects With An Emotional Literacy Program
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Psychometric Properties of the Flourishing Scale and Measurement Invariance Between Two Samples of Spanish University Students
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“In the eudaimonic tradition, wellbeing is conceptualized as psychological well-being (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Validierung eines Fragebogens zur umfassenden Operationalisierung von Wohlbefinden
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Authors: Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D.
Affiliations: Emory University (US)
Tel Aviv University (IL)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
ORCID: Keyes, Corey L. M.
Shmotkin, Dov
Ryff, Carol D.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002-06
Volume: 82
Issue: 6
Pages: 1007-1022
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
OpenAlex: W2106343304
Cited by: 3,322
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 93 · 2025: 178 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 254 · 2022: 268 · 2021: 233 · 2020: 255 · 2019: 202 · 2018: 146 · 2017: 193 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 179 · 2013: 149 · 2012: 146
FWCI: 33.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Flow Experience in Various Fields
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords: subjective well-being, psychological well-being, positive affect, negative affect, life satisfaction, personality traits, sociodemographic differences, age, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Affect, Aged, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Personality, Discriminant Analysis

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

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