Cited by 3,322Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionFlow Experience in Various FieldsAging and Gerontology Research

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

Keyes, Corey L. M., Shmotkin, Dov, Ryff, Carol D.·2002·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007

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Abstract

Subjective well-being (SWB) is evaluation of life in terms of satisfaction and balance between positive and negative affect; psychological well-being (PWB) entails perception of engagement with existential challenges of life. The authors hypothesized that these research streams are conceptually related but empirically distinct and that combinations of them relate differentially to sociodemographics and personality. Data are from a national sample of 3,032 Americans aged 25-74. Factor analyses confirmed the related-but-distinct status of SWB and PWB. The probability of optimal well-being (high SWB and PWB) increased as age, education, extraversion, and conscientiousness increased and as neuroticism decreased. Compared with adults with higher SWB than PWB. adults with higher PWB than SWB were younger, had more education, and showed more openness to experience.

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Brunetto, Y., Shriberg, A., Farr‐Wharton, R., Shacklock, K., Newman, S., & Dienger, J. (2013) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1111/jonm.12111 · Cited by 139
Chronic physical conditions and aging: Is mental health a potential protective factor?
Keyes, C. L. M. (2005) · Ageing International · doi:10.1007/bf02681008 · Cited by 172
Self-citation
Resilience and coping as predictors of general well-being in the elderly: A structural equation modeling approach
Tomás, J. M., Sancho, P., Meléndez, J. C., & Mayordomo, T. (2012) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2011.615737 · Cited by 150
“All versions have been extensively validated in their original English versions (eg, Ryff, 1989 ; Ryff & Keyes, 1995 ; Ryff, Keyes, & Shmotkin, 2002 ).”
Background
Materialism and Well–Being in the Uk and Chile: Basic Need Satisfaction and Basic Need Frustration as Underlying Psychological Processes
Unanue, W., Dittmar, H., Vignoles, V. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2014) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1954 · Cited by 124
Happiness revisited: ontological well-being as a theory-based construct of subjective well-being
Şimşek, Ö. F. (2009) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-008-9105-6 · Cited by 124
“This formulation seems to be supported by the recent research by Keyes et al. (2002). This research, which included confirmatory factor analysis, indicated that the current SWB construct (positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction) seems to be contingent upon committing oneself to a meaningful and purpose…”
Result
Positive maternal mental health, parenting, and child development
Phua, D. Y., Kee, M. Z. L., & Meaney, M. J. (2020) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.09.028 · Cited by 124
Should I Stay or Should I Go? Identity and Well-Being in Sensemaking About Retention and Turnover
Rothausen, T. J., Henderson, K. E., Arnold, J. K., & Malshe, A. (2015) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206315569312 · Cited by 158
Assessment of companion animal quality of life in veterinary practice and research
Yeates, J. W., & Main, D. (2009) · Journal of Small Animal Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1748-5827.2009.00755.x · Cited by 147
Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for Psychological Well-Being in a Sub-Clinical Sample of University Students: A Controlled Pilot Study
Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., Sumich, A., Sundin, E. C., & Griffiths, M. D. (2013) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0191-5 · Cited by 123
Negative symptoms and depression predict lower psychological well-being in individuals with schizophrenia.
Strauss, G., Sandt, A. R., Catalano, L. T., & Allen, D. (2012) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.05.009 · Cited by 123
“Emotional and social well-being have been critically linked to optimal mental health states, good social and vocational functioning in the community, and lower rates of psychiatric disorders [21].”
BackgroundInfluential
Emotional Well-Being Under Conditions of Lockdown: An Experience Sampling Study in Austria During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Stieger, S., Lewetz, D., & Swami, V. (2021) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-020-00337-2 · Cited by 161
“Doing so is likely to provide a more holistic index of the degree to which an individual is flourishing in life (Keyes 2002) and would represent a fuller account of experiences of positive mental health during pandemics.”
Background
Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (SWEMWBS): performance in a clinical sample in relation to PHQ-9 and GAD-7
Shah, N., Cader, M., Andrews, B., McCabe, R., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2021) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-021-01882-x · Cited by 121
“The best approach to measurement of mental wellbeing has been widely debated, but consensus is growing to support the conceptual framework within which WEMWBS was developed, in which mental wellbeing covers aspects of both feeling good (Hedonia) and functioning well (Eudaimonia) [16, 17].”
Method
Factors associated with the life satisfaction amongst the rural elderly in Odisha, India
Banjare, P., Dwivedi, R., & Pradhan, J. (2015) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-015-0398-y · Cited by 123
“Psychological health is generally related to overall subjective well-being, and there is a significant relationship between depressive symptoms and LS [26, 27].”
Background
Mediating role of resilience in the relationships between fear of happiness and affect balance, satisfaction with life, and flourishing
Yıldırım, M. (2019) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1640 · Cited by 130
Distinguishing Relational Aspects of Character Strengths with Subjective and Psychological Well-being
Häusler, M., Strecker, C., Huber, A., Brenner, M., Höge, T., & Höfer, S. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01159 · Cited by 144
“PWB consists of autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, personal relationships, purpose in life, and selfacceptance (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
Perceived Social Support and Its Effects on Changes in the Affective and Eudaimonic Well-Being of Chilean University Students
Cobo‐Rendón, R., López-Angulo, Y., Pérez-Villalobos, M. V., & Mújica, A. D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.590513 · Cited by 162
The pursuit of wellness: Social media, body image and eating disorders
Marks, R. J., Foe, A. D., & Collett, J. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105659 · Cited by 167
Identifying experiences of physical and psychological violence in childhood that jeopardize mental health in adulthood
Greenfield, E. A., & Marks, N. F. (2010) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.08.012 · Cited by 122
Curiosity and well-being
Gallagher, M. W., & Lopez, S. J. (2007) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760701552345 · Cited by 147
“Past research (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryff, 1989) has found these measures to be reliable and to be related but distinct from measures of subjective wellbeing.”
Autonomy Support, Need Satisfaction, and Motivation for Support Among Adults With Intellectual Disability: Testing a Self-Determination Theory Model
Frielink, N., Schuengel, C., & Embregts, P. J. C. M. (2017) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-123.1.33 · Cited by 143
Unequally Distributed Psychological Assets: Are There Social Disparities in Optimism, Life Satisfaction, and Positive Affect?
Boehm, J. K., Chen, Y., Williams, D. R., Ryff, C. D., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118066 · Cited by 130
“Moreover, life satisfaction is associated with social advantage [22,23] such that greater satisfaction is linked with more education and higher income [24 – 27].”
Self-citation
Self-realisation and meaning making in the face of adversity: a eudaimonic approach to human resilience
Ryff, C. D. (2014) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.1080/14330237.2014.904098 · Cited by 146
Self-citation
Psychological Well-Being During Adolescence: Stability and Association With Romantic Relationships
Gómez-López, M., Viejo, C., & Ruiz, R. O. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01772 · Cited by 177
Validation of the Mental Health Continuum‐Short Form and the dual continua model of well‐being and psychopathology in an adult mental health setting
Franken, K., Lamers, S. M. A., ten Klooster, P. M., Bohlmeijer, E. T., & Westerhof, G. J. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22659 · Cited by 152
Applied Positive Psychology: A New Perspective for Professional Practice.
Linley, P., & Joseph, S. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9780470939338.ch1 · Cited by 115
Disequilibrium and Resolution: The Nonlinear Effects of Diversity Courses on Well-Being and Orientations toward Diversity
Bowman, N. A. (2010) · Review of higher education/The review of higher education · doi:10.1353/rhe.0.0172 · Cited by 115
“The theoretical origins of PWB are grounded in Abraham Maslow’s (1968) concept of selfactualization, Erik Erikson’s (1959) psychosocial stage model, and Carl Jung’s (1933) formulation of individuation, among others.”
Background
Work-related well-being in the South African Police Service
Mostert, K., & Rothmann, S. (2006) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.09.003 · Cited by 114
“Keyes et al. (2002) also found that low neuroticism (i.e., high emotional stability) is related to work engagement.”
Background
Integrating Authenticity, Well-being, and Memorability in Heritage Tourism: A Two-Site Investigation
Yi, X.-L., Fu, X.-X., Lin, V. S., & Xiao, H.-G. (2021) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287520987624 · Cited by 112
“Psychological well-being is distinct from subjective well-being in six facets of actualization: autonomy, self-acceptance, personal growth, environmental mastery, life purpose, and positive connections or relatedness (Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff 2002; Li and Chan 2017; Ryff and Keyes 1995).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Meaningful Living to Promote Complete Mental Health Among University Students in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Arslan, G., Yıldırım, M., Karataş, Z., Kabasakal, Z., & Kılınç, M. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00416-8 · Cited by 141
Death of Parents and Adult Psychological and Physical Well-Being
Marks, N., Jun, H., & Song, J. (2007) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x07302728 · Cited by 112
Forgiveness and happiness. the differing contexts of forgiveness using the distinction between hedonic and eudaimonic happiness
Maltby, J., Day, L., & Barber, L. (2005) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-004-0924-9 · Cited by 112
The student well-being model: a conceptual framework for the development of student well-being indicators
Soutter, A. K., O’Steen, B., & Gilmore, A. M. (2013) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2012.754362 · Cited by 173
Adolescent Characteristics by Type of Long-Term Aim in Life
Bronk, K. C., & Finch, W. H. (2010) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888690903510331 · Cited by 111
“Third, related research concludes that purpose is associated with subjective well-being, a construct similar to life satisfaction (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002 ), and other research finds that among adolescents self-reported purpose in life is associated with higher levels of life satisfaction (Bronk, Hill, Lapsley,…”
Authenticity and its influence on psychological well‐being and contingent self‐esteem of leaders in Singapore construction sector
Toor, S., & Ofori, G. (2009) · Construction Management and Economics · doi:10.1080/01446190902729721 · Cited by 115
“Ryan and Deci (2001) offer two main categories of well-being: hedonic well-being and eudaemonic well-being (see also Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
Eudaimonic Identity Theory: Identity as Self-Discovery
Waterman, A. S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_16 · Cited by 127
“There is ample evidence that, compared to those scoring low on purpose in life, those individuals scoring high on measures of purpose in life function more effectively with respect to life satisfaction (Zika & Chamberlain, 1992), positive and negative affect ( Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002; Schmutte & Ryff, 1997 ;Z ik…”
Background
Measuring Well-Being in Sport Performers: Where are We Now and How do we Progress?
Giles, S., Fletcher, D., Arnold, R., Ashfield, A., & Harrison, J. (2020) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-020-01274-z · Cited by 145
Goal motives, well-being, and physical health: An integrative model.
Miquelon, P., & Vallerand, R. J. (2008) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/a0012759 · Cited by 123
“Moreover, Keyes et al. (2002) have demonstrated that it was the existential aspects of the PWB scale (i.e., purpose in life and personal growth) that most cleanly separated self-realization from the affective assessments of happiness.”
BackgroundInfluential
The Potential Role of Meaning in Life in the Relationship Between Bullying Victimization and Suicidal Ideation
Henry, K. L., Lovegrove, P. J., Steger, M., Chen, P. Y., Cigularov, K. P., & Tomazic, R. G. (2014) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9960-2 · Cited by 108
The significance of transport mobility in predicting well-being
Vella‐Brodrick, D., & Stanley, J. (2013) · Transport Policy · doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2013.06.005 · Cited by 124
Promoting Well-Being in Old Age: The Psychological Benefits of Two Training Programs of Adapted Physical Activity
Fave, A. D., Bassi, M., Boccaletti, E. S., Roncaglione, C., Bernardelli, G., & Mari, D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00828 · Cited by 133
“As concerns psychological well-being, some studies conducted in the US detected aging related changes, including a decrease in personal growth and purpose in life, an increase in autonomy and environmental mastery, and stable values of positive relations and self-acceptance (Clarke et al., 2000; Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
Personality and well-being in adolescents
Moreira, P., Cloninger, C. R., Dinis, L., SÃ¡, L., Oliveira, J., Dias, A., & Oliveira, J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01494 · Cited by 116
Process algebras for quantitative analysis
Hillston, J. (2005) · 20th Annual IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science (LICS' 05) · doi:10.1109/lics.2005.35 · Cited by 106
Relationships between addictive Facebook use, depressiveness, insomnia, and positive mental health in an inpatient sample: A German longitudinal study
Brailovskaia, J., Rohmann, E., Bierhoff, H., Margraf, J., & Köllner, V. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.8.2019.63 · Cited by 122
Beyond self-report in the study of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being: Correlations with acquaintance reports, clinician judgments and directly observed social behavior
Nave, C. S., Sherman, R. A., & Funder, D. C. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.09.001 · Cited by 92
“Ryff developed a multidimensional model of wellbeing that includes six dimensions: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance, which are theorized to vary across the lifespan (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryff, 1989b).”
Psychological Well-Being and Social Media Use: A Meta-Analysis of Associations between Social Media Use and Depression, Anxiety, Loneliness, Eudaimonic, Hedonic and Social Well-Being
Hancock, J., Liu, S. X., Luo, M., & Mieczkowski, H. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4053961 · Cited by 101
Goal Motives, Well-Being, and Physical Health: Happiness and Self-Realization as Psychological Resources Under Challenge
Miquelon, P., & Vallerand, R. J. (2006) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-006-9043-8 · Cited by 103
“, Diener & Lucas, 1999), and self-realization (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Dynamics of wellbeing co-creation: a psychological ownership perspective
Chen, T., Dodds, S., Finsterwalder, J., Witell, L., Cheung, L., Falter, M., Garry, T., Snyder, H., & McColl‐Kennedy, J. R. (2020) · Journal of service management · doi:10.1108/josm-09-2019-0297 · Cited by 128
The influence of customer-to-customer interactions on elderly consumers’ satisfaction and social well-being
Altınay, L., Song, H., Madanoglu, M., & Wang, X. L. (2018) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.09.005 · Cited by 129
Relationships between Meaningful Activity, Basic Psychological Needs, and Meaning in Life: Test of the Meaningful Activity and Life Meaning Model
Eakman, A. M. (2013) · OTJR Occupational Therapy Journal of Research · doi:10.3928/15394492-20130222-02 · Cited by 117
From Happiness to Flourishing at Work: A Southern African Perspective
Rothmann, S. (2013) · Cross-cultural advancements in positive psychology · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6368-5_7 · Cited by 97

Authors: Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D.
Affiliations: Emory University (US)
Tel Aviv University (IL)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
ORCID: Keyes, Corey L. M.
Shmotkin, Dov
Ryff, Carol D.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002-06
Volume: 82
Issue: 6
Pages: 1007-1022
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
OpenAlex: W2106343304
Cited by: 3,322
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 93 · 2025: 178 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 254 · 2022: 268 · 2021: 233 · 2020: 255 · 2019: 202 · 2018: 146 · 2017: 193 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 179 · 2013: 149 · 2012: 146
FWCI: 33.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Flow Experience in Various Fields
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords: subjective well-being, psychological well-being, positive affect, negative affect, life satisfaction, personality traits, sociodemographic differences, age, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Affect, Aged, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Personality, Discriminant Analysis

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

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