Cited by 3,322Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionFlow Experience in Various FieldsAging and Gerontology Research

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

Keyes, Corey L. M., Shmotkin, Dov, Ryff, Carol D.·2002·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007

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Abstract

Subjective well-being (SWB) is evaluation of life in terms of satisfaction and balance between positive and negative affect; psychological well-being (PWB) entails perception of engagement with existential challenges of life. The authors hypothesized that these research streams are conceptually related but empirically distinct and that combinations of them relate differentially to sociodemographics and personality. Data are from a national sample of 3,032 Americans aged 25-74. Factor analyses confirmed the related-but-distinct status of SWB and PWB. The probability of optimal well-being (high SWB and PWB) increased as age, education, extraversion, and conscientiousness increased and as neuroticism decreased. Compared with adults with higher SWB than PWB. adults with higher PWB than SWB were younger, had more education, and showed more openness to experience.

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Pedhu, Y. (2022) · Jurnal Konseling dan Pendidikan · doi:10.29210/162200 · Cited by 40
Evaluation of Well-Being in Adolescence: Proposal of an Integrative Model with Hedonic and Eudemonic Aspects
Strelhow, M. R., Sarriera, J., & Casas, F. (2020) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-019-09708-5 · Cited by 40
Psychological well-being and health perception: predictors for past, present and future
Leite, Â., Ramires, A., de Moura, A., Souto, T., & Marôco, J. (2019) · Archives of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/0101-60830000000194 · Cited by 40
Subjective and psychological well-being in Parkinson's Disease: A systematic review
Vescovelli, F., Sarti, D., & Ruini, C. (2018) · Acta Neurologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/ane.12946 · Cited by 46
Work-life balance crafting behaviors: an empirical study
Gravador, L. N., & Teng‐Calleja, M. (2018) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-05-2016-0112 · Cited by 64
“Numerous literatures have dissected the meaning of well-being (e.g. Diener et al., 1999; Keyes et al., 2002; Seligman, 2011; Stratham and Chase, 2010).”
Background
The eudaimonic component of satisfaction with life and psychological well-being in Spanish cultures.
Díaz, D., Stavraki, M., Blanco, A., & Gandarillas, B. (2015) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2015.5 · Cited by 40
“As such, there is a lack of research that has simultaneously used hedonic and eudaimonic indicators, and even researchers who did so, tended to treat these indicators separately (e.g. Keyes et al., 2002; Rodríguez-Carvajal et al., 2010).”
Background
Correlates and predictors of positive mental health for school going children
Singh, K., & Junnarkar, M. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.047 · Cited by 40
Does the Relation between Volunteering and Well-Being Vary with Health and Age?
Okun, M., Rios, R., Crawford, A. V., & Levy, R. (2011) · The International Journal of Aging & Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.72.3.f · Cited by 40
Yaşam Kalitesinin Yordayıcıları Olarak Psikolojik İyi Oluş ve Yaşam Doyumu
Demir, R., Tanhan, A., Çi̇çek, İ., Yerlikaya, İ., Kurt, S., & Ünverdi, B. (2021) · Yaşadıkça Eğitim · doi:10.33308/26674874.2021351256 · Cited by 39
“Yaşam Doyumu Ölçeği, Diener, Emmons, Larsen ve Griffin (1985) tarafından geliştirilmiş, Köker (1991) tarafından Türkçeye uyarlanmıştır.”
Method
Binge-watching in times of COVID-19: A longitudinal examination of changes in affect and TV series consumption patterns during lockdown.
Sigre-Leirós, V., Billieux, J., Mohr, C., Maurage, P., King, D. L., Schimmenti, A., & Flayelle, M. (2021) · Psychology of Popular Media · doi:10.17605/osf.io/gk7u2 · Cited by 39
“…of satisfaction, happiness, and balance between positive and negative affect, rather than on psychological well-being (i.e., eudaimonic well-being), which relates to personal growth and human potential for effectively engaging with the challenges of life (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001).”
Background
The Structure of Subjective Well-Being and Its Relation to Objective Well-Being Indicators: Evidence from EU-SILC for Serbia
Vladisavljević, M., & Mentus, V. (2019) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294118756335 · Cited by 39
The Role of Employees’ Work Patterns and Office Type Fit (and Misfit) in the Relationships Between Employee Well-Being and Performance
Soriano, A., Kozusznik, M. W., Silla, J. M. P., & Mateo-Cecilia, C. (2018) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916518794260 · Cited by 45
“Moreover, the present study enriches the happy-productive worker model by taking into account both the hedonic and eudaimonic components of well-being (e.g., Dolan, 2014; Keyes et al., 2002; Linley et al., 2009).”
Background
Psychological resources and glucoregulation in Japanese adults: Findings from MIDJA.
Boylan, J. M., Tsenkova, V. K., Miyamoto, Y., & Ryff, C. D. (2017) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000455 · Cited by 45
Self-citation
Balanced authenticity predicts optimal well-being: Theoretical conceptualization and empirical development of the authenticity in relationships scale
Wang, Y.-N. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.001 · Cited by 39
Relations Between Media, Perceived Social Support and Personal Well-Being in Adolescence
Sarriera, J. C., Abs, D., Casas, F., & Bedin, L. M. (2011) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9821-x · Cited by 38
Estado del arte, y perspectiva actual del concepto de bienestar psicológico en psicología del deporte
Carrasco, A. E. R., García-Más, A., & Brustad, R. J. (2009) · Scholarship & Creative Works - Digital UNC a service of University Libraries (University of Northern Colorado) · doi:10.14349/rlp.v41i2.384 · Cited by 25
The association between COVID ‐19, personal wellbeing, depression, and suicide risk factors in Australian autistic adults
Hedley, D., Hayward, S. M., Denney, K., Uljarević, M., Bury, S., Sahin, E., Brown, C. M., Clapperton, A., Dissanayake, C., Robinson, J., et al. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2614 · Cited by 38
“When considering psychological distress, it is equally important to consider protective factors and resilience (Keyes, 2005; Keyes et al., 2002; Teismann, Forkmann, et al., 2018).”
BackgroundResult
Relationship among workplace spirituality, meaning in life, and psychological well-being of teachers
Liang, J.-L., Peng, L.-X., Zhao, S.-J., & Wu, H.-T. (2017) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2017.050613 · Cited by 38
“[9] Psychological well-being is closely tied to an individual’s awareness that he or she has, or will have, a meaningful and self-fulfilling life (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002) [10].”
Background
Living the dream? A qualitative retrospective study exploring the role of adolescent aspirations across the life span.
Ashby, J. S., & Schoon, I. (2012) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027297 · Cited by 38
The role of self‐compassion in the mental health of adults with ADHD
Beaton, D. M., Sirois, F. M., & Milne, E. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23354 · Cited by 46
“The two‐continua model of mental health (Keyes et al., 2002) acknowledges that both well‐being and ill‐being contribute to a person's overall mental health, but that they can exist independently.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Inteligencia emocional del docente y satisfacción académica del estudiante universitario
Huamán, D. R. T., Huamán, A. L. T., & Cordero, R. C. (2020) · Revista Digital de Investigación en Docencia Universitaria · doi:10.19083/ridu.2020.887 · Cited by 38
Sources of well-being for older adults with and without dementia in residential care: relations to presence of meaning and life satisfaction
Dewitte, L., Vandenbulcke, M., Schellekens, T., & Dezutter, J. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2019.1691144 · Cited by 49
Bifactor Models in Psychometric Test Development
Chen, F.-F., & Zhang, Z.-G. (2018) · doi:10.1002/9781118489772.ch12 · Cited by 38
Returning to Work after Childbirth in Europe: Well-Being, Work-Life Balance, and the Interplay of Supervisor Support
Lucia-Casademunt, A. M., García-Cabrera, A. M., Padilla-Angulo, L., & Cuéllar-Molina, D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00068 · Cited by 38
“Research on well-being is a broad domain that has flourished in recent decades (Keyes et al., 2002); however, there is no academic consensus on its definition and measurement (Franco-Santos and Doherty, 2017).”
Background
WORK LIFE BALANCE AS A FACTOR INFLUENCING WELL-BEING
Hoffmann-Burdzińska, K., & Rutkowska, M. (2015) · Journal of Positive Management · doi:10.12775/jpm.2015.024 · Cited by 52
“Although such an integrative approach is appealing, little is known about its validity and superiority (Keyes et al., 2002), and empirical support for it remains scarce (Dagenais-Desmarais and Savoie, 2012).”
BackgroundMethod
Toward understanding the impact of occupational characteristics on the recovery and growth processes of peer providers.
Moran, G. S., Russinova, Z. L., & Stepas, K. A. (2012) · Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal · doi:10.1037/h0094496 · Cited by 33
A feasibility study of psychological strengths and well-being assessment in individuals living with recurrent depression
Macaskill, A. (2012) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2012.702783 · Cited by 34
“This two continua model of mental health asserts that individuals can experience positive well-being concurrently with psychopathology (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2000; Westerhof & Keyes, 2010).”
Combining Happines’s and Suffering in a Retrospective View of Anchor Periods in Life: A Differential Approach to Subjective Well-Being
Shmotkin, D., Berkovich, M., & Cohen, K. (2006) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-005-5556-x · Cited by 41
Self-citation
Entrapment, positive psychological functioning and suicide ideation: A moderation analysis
Teismann, T., & Brailovskaia, J. (2019) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2403 · Cited by 43
Social Problem Solving and Positive Psychological Functioning: Looking at the Positive Side of Problem Solving.
Chang, E. C., Downey, C. A., & Salata, J. L. (2009) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10805-006 · Cited by 32
Extraversion and Neuroticism Mediate Associations Between Openness, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness and Affective Well-Being
Zhang, R.-P., & Tsingan, L. (2014) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9482-3 · Cited by 37
Positive Artificial Intelligence in Education (P-AIED): A Roadmap
Bittencourt, I. I., Challco, G. C., Santos, J., Fernandes, S. C. S., Silva, J., Batista, N., Hutz, C. S., & Isotani, S. (2023) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-023-00357-y · Cited by 63
How CEOs’ inclusive leadership fuels employees’ well-being: a three-level model
Cao, M., Zhao, Y., & Zhao, S. (2022) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2022.2077126 · Cited by 41
“Organizational structure was assessed by senior managers using a 7-item scale developed by Khandwalla (1977). As previous research such as Covin and Slevin (1988) noted, a higher rating indicates a higher level of mechanization.”
Method
The Portuguese Adaptation of the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form for Adult Population
Fonte, C., Silva, I., Vilhena, E., & Keyes, C. L. M. (2019) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-019-00484-8 · Cited by 43
“To fully capture the state of mental health, its assessment should integrate two traditions of well-being, in addition to mental illness (Keyes et al. 2002; Lamers et al. 2015): the hedonic and the eudaimonic tradition.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Dispositional hope and life satisfaction among older adults attending lifelong learning programs.
Oliver, A., Tomás, J. M., & Montoro-Rodriguez, J. (2017) · Archives of gerontology and geriatrics (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2017.05.008 · Cited by 37
“Keyes et al. (2002) argued about the partial overlapping between hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions, given that happiness, satisfaction with life, positive or negative affect, pleasure or displeasure do not occur in a vacuum but as a result of the interaction among sociodemographic factors and…”
Background
Adjusting to retirement from sport: narratives of former competitive rhythmic gymnasts
Cavallerio, F., Wadey, R., & Wagstaff, C. R. D. (2017) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2017.1335651 · Cited by 47
“PWB is a multidimensional construct that focuses on human development and individual’s potential for a meaningful life and self-realisation (Keyes et al. 2002).”
Background
Family, welfare state generosity and the vulnerability of older adults: A cross-national study.
Moor, N. J. A., Graaf, P. D. D., & Komter, A. (2013) · Journal of Aging Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jaging.2013.07.002 · Cited by 37
Clinical Applications of Well‐Being Therapy
Ruini, C., & Fava, G. A. (2004) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939338.ch23 · Cited by 75
Genetic and Environmental Multidimensionality of Well- and Ill-Being in Middle Aged Twin Men
Franz, C. E., Panizzon, M. S., Eaves, L. J., Thompson, W., Lyons, M. J., Jacobson, K. C., Tsuang, M., Glatt, S. J., & Kremen, W. S. (2012) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-012-9538-x · Cited by 36
“…et al. 2010) and low levels of depressive symptoms are sometimes interpreted as the negative end of well-being even though happiness or satisfaction and ill-being likely do not represent the ends of a single bipolar dimension (Diener et al. 2006; Keyes 2002; Keyes et al. 2002; Ryff et al. 2006).”
Influential
Mechanisms of the acceptance and commitment therapy: A meta-analytic structural equation model
REN, Z., ZHAO, C., BIAN, C., ZHU, W., JIANG, G., & ZHU, Z. (2019) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2019.00662 · Cited by 36
Latent profiles of emotion regulation among university students: links to repetitive negative thinking, internet addiction, and subjective wellbeing
Oliveira, J., Pedras, S., Inman, R. A., & Ramalho, S. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1272643 · Cited by 40
“Numerous studies have shown that these three components are highly correlated (Keyes et al., 2002) and tend to load on a general subjective wellbeing factor (Jovanovic, 2015).”
Background
Catching emotions: the moderating role of emotional contagion between leader-member exchange, psychological capital and employee well-being
Xerri, M. J., Cozens, R., & Brunetto, Y. (2022) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-11-2021-0785 · Cited by 59
Relationship Between Physical Activity Levels and Psychological Well-Being Among Male University Students in South East, Nigeria: A Cross-Sectional Study
Ugwueze, F. C., Agbaje, O. S., Umoke, P. C. I., & Ozoemena, E. L. (2021) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/15579883211008337 · Cited by 46
“Furthermore, Ryff (1989), Ryff and Keyes (1995), Keyes et al. (2002) reported gender differences in the PWB dimensions of positive relations with others and personal growth.”
Psychological Well-Being Among Informal Caregivers in the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging: Why the Location of Care Matters
Lee, Y., Bierman, A., & Penning, M. (2020) · The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaa159 · Cited by 36
“Psychological well-being An established body of work illustrates that negative emotions and life satisfaction represent related but distinct indicators of individual reflections of well-being (Keyes et al., 2002; Pavot & Diener, 2008).”
Background
Longitudinal prediction of positive and negative mental health in Germany, Russia, and China
Margraf, J., Zhang, X.-C., Lavallee, K., & Schneider, S. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0234997 · Cited by 36
“People who are mentally healthy tend to have stable relationships, view their lives as having purpose and direction, experience more positive affect, and are more likely to be self-accepting [64].”
Background
Resilience and Socioeconomic Status as Predictors of Life Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being in Colombian Older Adults
Reyes, M. F., Satorres, E., & Meléndez, J. C. (2019) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/0733464819867554 · Cited by 49
“The results contribute to current evidence showing that well-being is determined by psychosocial and cultural factors, and that these factors are related in different ways to PWB and SWB (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryff, 2014).”
Background
Wisdom and Well-Being
Ardelt, M. (2019) · The Cambridge Handbook of Wisdom · doi:10.1017/9781108568272.028 · Cited by 36
Child psychological well-being and its associations with material deprivation and type of home
Crous, G. (2017) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.06.051 · Cited by 40
Partner support as a mediator of the relationship between prenatal concerns and psychological well-being in pregnant women
Ilska, M., & Przybyła-Basista, H. (2017) · Health Psychology Report · doi:10.5114/hpr.2017.68235 · Cited by 44
Religiousness, spirituality, and eudaimonic and hedonic well-being
Yoon, E., Chang, C. T., Clawson, A., Knoll, M., Aydın, F., Barsigian, L. L., & Hughes, K. (2015) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2014.968528 · Cited by 36
Happiness, Flourishing, and Life Satisfaction
Keyes, C. L. M. (2014) · The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Health, Illness, Behavior, and Society · doi:10.1002/9781118410868.wbehibs454 · Cited by 60
Self-citation
Well-being at work: a review
Santos, G., & de Ceballos, A. G. D. C. (2013) · Psicologia em Estudo · doi:10.1590/s1413-73722013000200006 · Cited by 36

Authors: Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D.
Affiliations: Emory University (US)
Tel Aviv University (IL)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
ORCID: Keyes, Corey L. M.
Shmotkin, Dov
Ryff, Carol D.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002-06
Volume: 82
Issue: 6
Pages: 1007-1022
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
OpenAlex: W2106343304
Cited by: 3,322
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 93 · 2025: 178 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 254 · 2022: 268 · 2021: 233 · 2020: 255 · 2019: 202 · 2018: 146 · 2017: 193 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 179 · 2013: 149 · 2012: 146
FWCI: 33.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Flow Experience in Various Fields
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords: subjective well-being, psychological well-being, positive affect, negative affect, life satisfaction, personality traits, sociodemographic differences, age, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Affect, Aged, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Personality, Discriminant Analysis

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

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