Approaches to studying formal and everyday reasoning.

Galotti, Kathleen M.

doi:10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.331

Cited by 322Logic, Reasoning, and KnowledgeDecision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsCategorization, perception, and language

Approaches to studying formal and everyday reasoning.

Galotti, Kathleen M.·1989·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.331

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In practice people frequently fail to process contradictory information deeply; they attend more to evidence that supports their beliefs than evidence that contradicts them.
“However, in practice people frequently fail to process contradictory information deeply; in particular, they attend much more to evidence that supports their beliefs than evidence that contradicts them (e.g., Galotti, 1989).”
From The role of anomalous data in knowledge acquisition: A theoretical framework and implications for science instruction. (1993) · cites this paper as Galotti, 1989

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Society's retributive response to juvenile violence: A developmental perspective.
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“Decision making in controlled experimental circumstances does not necessarily reflect an individual's everyday decision making "on the street" (Frisch & Clemen, 1994; Galotti, 1989).”
Background
Working memory and everyday conditional reasoning: Retrieval and inhibition of stored counterexamples
Neys, W. D., Schaeken, W., & d’Ydewalle, G. (2005) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780442000222 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“Hence it is rather unlikely that the reported findings could be attributed to an aggregation confound.”
Background
Decision-making styles in a real-life decision: Choosing a college major
Galotti, K. M., Ciner, E., Altenbaumer, H. E., Geerts, H. J., Rupp, A., & Woulfe, J. M. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.03.003 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“We expected separate knowing to correlate with K.M. Galotti et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 629–639 631”
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A Comparison of Mathematical and Statistical Reasoning
del Mas, R. C. (2004) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-2278-6_4 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Teaching Critical Thinking
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Ethical Leadership and Followers’ Moral Judgment: The Role of Followers’ Perceived Accountability and Self-leadership
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“As a result, intuitive responses to common situations will not be based on reasoning as they represent a one step process (Galotti 1989).”
BackgroundInfluential
Fostering argumentative knowledge construction through enactive role play in Second Life
Jamaludin, A. B., Chee, Y. S., & Ho, C. M. L. (2009) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.02.009 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“According to Galloti (1989) and Shaw (1996), there are close connections between the concept of argumentative knowledge construction and the concepts of ‘critical thinking,’ ‘everyday reasoning,’ ‘informal logic,’ and ‘pragmatic reasoning.’”
Background
Variation in Raven's Progressive Matrices scores across time and place
Brouwers, S. A., van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Hemert, D. A. V. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2008.10.006 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“The Raven's Progressive Matrices are measures of reasoning and in order to reason people need opportunities for learning how to transform given information into conclusions (Galotti, 1989).”
Constructing knowledge in the context of BioWorld
Lajoie, S. P., Guerrera, C., Munsie, S. D., & Lavigne, N. C. (2001) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/a:1003996000775 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Connecting scientific and informal reasoning
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Microcultural Analysis of Variation in Sharing of Causal Reasoning about Behavior
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“tive reasoning more broadly is important in establishing that we are dealing with more than task-specific variation and makes clear the relevance of the present results to the growing study of informal reasoning (Galotti, 1989; Kuhn, 1993; Rogoff & Lave, 1984; Sinnott, 1989; Sternberg & Wagner, 1986; Voss, Perkins, &…”
Result
The Cognitive Processes in Informal Reasoning
Shaw, V. (1996) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/135467896394564 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Counterfeit Luxuries: Does Moral Reasoning Strategy Influence Consumers’ Pursuit of Counterfeits?
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The everyday production of knowledge: individual differences in epistemological understanding and juror‐reasoning skill
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Missing the point or missing the norms? Epistemological norms as predictors of students’ ability to identify fallacious arguments
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Identification of informal reasoning fallacies as a function of epistemological level, grade level, and cognitive ability.
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Logical Reasoning in Formal and Everyday Reasoning Tasks
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“For instance, the importance of transforming information as stated by Galotti (1989): “[Reasoning is a] mental activity that consists of transforming given information ... in order to reach conclusions” (p. 333) and the role of samenesses as stated by Grossen (1991): “Analogical and logical reasoning are strategies fo…”
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Critical Thinking Ability and Disposition as Factors of Performance on a Written Critical Thinking Test.
Taube, K. T. (1995) · Purdue e-Pubs (Purdue University System) · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Multi‐dimensionality of learning in new product development teams
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A longitudinal study of real‐life decision making: Choosing a college
Galotti, K. M. (1995) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2350090602 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citation
A GENERATIVE APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT
Bejar, I. I. (1991) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1991.tb01387.x · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Précis ofDeduction
Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Byrne, R. M. J. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00030260 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
The Conditional Reasoning Measurement System for Aggression: An Overview
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“…is inductive reasoning, although it focuses less on formal problem solving than on the deliberations that people use everyday to attempt to make sense of their environments and to decide on reasonable ways to adapt to those environments (Galotti, 1989; Kuhn, 1991; Wagner & Sternberg, 1985, 1986).”
Background
Development of intuitive and numerical proportional reasoning
Ahl, V., Moore, C. F., & Dixon, J. A. (1992) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/0885-2014(92)90006-d · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Frontal lobe dysfunction and everyday problem-solving: Social and non-social contributions
Channon, S. (2004) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.008 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Decision Structuring in Important Real-Life Choices
Galotti, K. M. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01898.x · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“There is good reason to be suspicious of this assumption (Galotti, 1989, 2002).”
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Clinical Reasoning
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Judging the plausibility of arguments in scientific texts: a student–scientist comparison
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“According to the mental model theory, readers use mental models to also evaluate the truthfulness of formal arguments (Johnson-Laird & Byrne, 1992) and informal arguments in a text (Galotti, 1989; Perkins, 1986; Shaw, 1996).”
Method
Framing Effect in the Trolley Problem and Footbridge Dilemma
Cao, F., Zhang, J., Song, L., Wang, S., Miao, D.-M., & Peng, J.-X. (2017) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294116685866 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“In early studies of moral decision making, moral judgment was regarded as a pure logical reasoning process (Bargh & Ferguson, 2000; Galotti, 1989).”
Background
Effect of CSR contribution timing during COVID-19 pandemic on consumers’ prepayment purchase intentions: Evidence from hospitality industry in China
Tong, Z., Xie, Y., & Xiao, H. (2021) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102997 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Many researchers in psychology, economics, and management have expressed concern about hypothetical tasks adopted in many decision-making experiments, as real-life decisions can differ drastically from imaginary ones (e.g., Camerer and Mobbs, 2017; Galotti, 1989; Galotti et al., 2006).”
Background
Transitivity judgments, memory for premises, and models of children's reasoning*1
CHAPMAN, M. (1992) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/0273-2297(92)90006-n · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Because of Johnson-Laird’s success in providing explanations for the errors and biases typically found in everyday reasoning, Galotti (1989) named the mental models approach as the most promising approach to a general theory of human reasoning.”
Background
The representativeness heuristic in judgements involving entrepreneurial success and failure
Wickham, P. A. (2003) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/00251740310457605 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Developmental trends in everyday conditional reasoning: The retrieval and inhibition interplay
Neys, W. D., & Everaerts, D. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2008.03.003 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Hurricane Risk Communication: Visualization and Behavioral Science Concepts
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“Mental models of risk While JDM research tends to focus on identifying, typically in controlled laboratory settings, how people weigh and select alternate possible decisions (Galotti 1989), mental models research focuses more on how real-world experiences shape overall reasoning.”
Background
Task Conflict, Problem-Solving, and Yielding: Effects on Cognition and Performance in Functionally Diverse Innovation Teams
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“The evaluation differences should be caused by different goal structures because goal structures are how people evaluate how well an end state matches what is desired (Galotti, 1989).”
Background
Everyday reasoning and logical inference
Barwise, J. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00030314 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Mental models and the tractability of everyday reasoning
Oaksford, M. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00030569 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Children's Beliefs About Everyday Reasoning
Amsterlaw, J. (2006) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00881.x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“…deal of research in cognitive science has been devoted to characterizing and explaining human reasoning processes (for reviews, see Baron, 2000; Galotti, 1989), tracking their development over the life span (e.g., DeLoache, Miller, & Pierroutsakos, 1998; Jacobs & Klaczynski, 2002; Moshman,…”
BackgroundInfluential
The effect of generic statements on children's causal attributions: Questions of mechanism.
Cimpian, A., & Erickson, L. C. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025274 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Toward a theory of minimally rational argument: Analyses of episode‐specific effects of argument structures
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Individual differences in strategies for syllogistic reasoning
Bacon, A. M., Handley, S. J., & Newstead, S. E. (2003) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780343000196 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“…individuals comprehend their world, how they make decisions, and revise their beliefs, is all dependent on the ability to manipulate and transform knowledge in different contextual situations (Evans, Newstead, & Byrne, 1993; Galotti, 1989; Johnson-Laird & Bara, 1984; Johnson-Laird & Byrne, 1991).”
Background
Information Search Strategies in Loosely Structured Settings
Chang, C.-K., & McDaniel, E. D. (1995) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/0bk5-6x68-h0e9-jkba · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Factors Affecting Pre-Service Teachers' Evaluations of the Validity of Students' Mathematical Arguments in Classroom Contexts
Morris, A. (2007) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370000701632405 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…to consciously set aside some prior knowledge and use only the premise information to determine what necessarily follows from the premises, while selectively introducing information from long-term memory to evaluate the truth of the premises (Braine, 1990; Galotti, 1989; Grice, 1975; Morris, 2000).”
Background
Development of logical reasoning: Children's ability to verbally explain the nature of the distinction between logical and nonlogical forms of argument.
Morris, A. (2000) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.6.741 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
How to improve argumentation comprehension in university students: experimental test of a training approach
von der Mühlen, S., Richter, T., Schmid, S., & Berthold, K. (2019) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-018-9471-3 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“An argument is an attempt to convince the reader to accept a proposition, or claim (Galotti 1989).”
Background
Base rates do not constrain nonprobability judgments
Windschitl, P. D., & Wells, G. L. (1996) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00041443 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Dialogic thinking
Fernyhough, C. (2009) · Private Speech, Executive Functioning, and the Development of Verbal Self-Regulation · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511581533.004 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Psychological Research and the Epistemological Approach to Argumentation
Weinstock, M. P. (2008) · Informal Logic · doi:10.22329/il.v26i1.435 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“It is only in recent years that a group of psychologists have started taking argument as the subject of their study (Galotti, 1989; Rips, 2001).”
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Why should we abandon the mental logic hypothesis?
Bonatti, L. L. (1994) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90019-1 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“For example , if a premise has different possible interpreta - tions , an order is needed to constrain the sequence of constructed models ( GaIotti , 1989 ) .”
Classrooms That Work: Teaching Generic Skills in Academic and Vocational Settings
Stasz, C. (1995) · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Reasoning and Dyslexia: is Visual Memory a Compensatory Resource?
Bacon, A. M., & Handley, S. J. (2014) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.1483 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Connectionist representation, semantic compositionality, and the instability of concept structure
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Measurement of Problem-Solving Deficits in Adults with Acquired Brain Damage
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Children's application of simultaneous and successive processing in inductive and deductive reasoning problems : implications for developing scientific reasoning skills
Watters, J., & English, L. D. (1995) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.3660320705 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Inductive and deductive reasoning In the context of this study formal reasoning is restricted to intellectual activity with problems whose solutions are governed by a system of logic (Galotti, 1989).”
The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment
Haidt, J. (2008) · Reasoning · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511814273.055 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Mental models or formal rules?
Johnson-Laird, P. N., & Byrne, R. M. J. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0003065x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Reasoning and Problem Solving
Leighton, J. P., & Sternberg, R. J. (2003) · Handbook of Psychology · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0423 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Reconceptualizing Intelligence: Dysrationalia as an Intuition Pump
Stanovich, K. E. (1994) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x023004011 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…some progress has even been made on this difficult problem (Arkes, 1991; Baron, 1985,1988; Edwards & von Winterfeldt, 1986; Evans, 1989; Fischhoff, 1982; Fischhoff & BeythMarom, 1983; Friedrich, 1993; Galotti, 1989; Howson & Urbach, 1989; Nozick, 1993; Smith et al., 1991; Thagard, 1992).”
Background
Prospects for shared electric velomobility: Profiling potential adopters at a multi-campus university
Eccarius, T., Leung, A., Shen, C.-W., Burke, M., & Lu, C. (2021) · Journal of Transport Geography · doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2021.103190 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
The logical content of theories of deduction
Hodges, W. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0003048x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
How to make big decisions: A cross-sectional study on the decision making process in life choices
Savioni, L., Triberti, S., Durosini, I., & Pravettoni, G. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02792-x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“(Galotti, 1989, 2005, 2007; Pomytkina et al., 2020).”
Bringing Formal and Informal Reasoning Together—A New Era of Assessment?
Teig, N., & Scherer, R. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01097 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“The process of scientiﬁc reasoning comprises formal and informal reasoning (Galotti, 1989; Kuhn, 1993).”
Background
Internet Experts’ Planning of Explanations for Laypersons: A Web Experimental Approach in the Internet Domain
Nückles, M., & Bromme, R. (2002) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//1618-3169.49.4.292 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Teaching and Assessing Deductive Reasoning Skills
Leighton, J. P. (2006) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.3200/jexe.74.2.107-136 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…some who are successful and some who are not, commonly report using these alternatives as strategies in solving categorical and conditional reasoning tasks (Galotti, 1989; Galotti et al., 1986; Johnson-Laird, 1999; Johnson-Laird & Bara, 1984; Rips, 1994; Roberts, 2004; Roberts & Newton, in press).”
Background
Conditional Reasoning: A Review and Suggestions for Future Test Development and Validation
LeBreton, J. M., Grimaldi, E. M., & Schoen, J. L. B. (2019) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428118816366 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…have explicit rules or strategies for arriving at correct solutions; (d) do not have a single, clear solution but rather multiple ambiguous solutions; and (e) often include a wide array of item content, much of which is immediately relevant to everyday life (see Galotti, 1989, Table 1, p. 335).”
Background
Context impact of clinical scenario on knowledge transfer and reasoning capacity in a medical problem-based learning curriculum
Collard, A., Brédart, S., & Bourguignon, J.-P. (2015) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2015.1087383 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
An Content Analysis of the Definition of Critical Thinking
Geng, F. (2014) · Asian Social Science · doi:10.5539/ass.v10n19p124 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…rules to produce thinking that meet prescribed standards while psychologists take a descriptive approach when scientifically studying how people think, sometimes investigating how well people can use the rules of reasoning and documenting their thinking errors in relation to norms (Galotti, 1989).”
Background
Synthesizing Instructional Technologies and Educational Culture: Exploring Cognition and Metacognition in the Social Studies
Thornburg, D. G., & Pea, R. D. (1991) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/kwx7-y23t-6ytt-gdh0 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Student Development in Logical Reasoning: Results of an Intervention Guiding Students Through Different Modes of Visual and Formal Representation
Bronkhorst, H., Roorda, G., Suhre, C. J. M., & Goedhart, M. J. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Science Mathematics and Technology Education · doi:10.1007/s42330-021-00148-4 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“It is possible that the implicit nature of the everyday reasoning tasks caused confusion or doubt among the students (Galotti, 1989), which results in the choice of a visual rather than an abstract model to gain a better understanding or overview.”
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Assessment of higher level cognitive-communication functions in adolescents with ABI: Standardization of the student version of the functional assessment of verbal reasoning and executive strategies (S-FAVRES)
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“discussions and evaluation of communication at work or school [68,76].”
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Exploring adolescent decision making about equity: Ill-structured problem solving in social studies
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Fallacy and controversy about base rates
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Stage Theory of Cognitive Development—Jean Piaget
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“Arguments, as they are seen for the purpose of this study, are usually made to convince a person to accept a certain assertion or claim (see Galotti 1989).”
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The right to argue: teaching and assessing everyday argumentation skills
Quintana, R., & Correnti, R. J. (2018) · Journal of Further and Higher Education · doi:10.1080/0309877x.2018.1450967 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
An Enrichment Philosophy and Strategy for Empowering Young Gifted Children to Become Autonomous Learners in Science
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The Democraticization of Psychology
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Inductive Reasoning and Problem Solving
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Preservice Mathematics Teachers’ Selective Attention and Professional Knowledge–Based Reasoning About Students’ Statistical Thinking
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“The term reasoning has often been used interchangeably with the term thinking to represent people’s mental activity (Galotti, 1989).”
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Estudios cognitivos sobre el conocimiento histórico: aportaciones para la enseñanza y alfabetización histórica.
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Authors: Galotti, K. M.
Affiliations: Carleton College (US)
Corresponding author: Galotti, Kathleen M.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1989-05
Volume: 105
Issue: 3
Pages: 331-351
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.331
OpenAlex: W1986884366
Cited by: 322
References: 108
Citations by year: 2026: 17 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 3
FWCI: 6.47
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Logic, Reasoning, and Knowledge
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
Keywords: formal reasoning, everyday reasoning, reasoning, problem solving, cognitive psychology of reasoning

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