The DOI matches its Crossref record; 195 of the 195 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Exposure and affect: Overview and meta-analysis of research, 1968–1987.
Abstract
L'auteur analyse les effets de variables methodologiques (type et complexite du stimulus, intervalle de presentation, temps d'exposition) et de variables subjectives (âge d'exposition, personnalite) sur la sensibilite du sujet aux stimulus de toutes sortes. Il conclut sur l'interet methodologique de sa recherche, ainsi que sur ses apports pratiques (publicite, traitement de la phobie)
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“In general, individuals prefer the familiar to the unknown because more risks are involved about the unknown [49,50].”
From Consumer Responses to Generative AI Chatbots Versus Search Engines for Product Evaluation (2025) · cites this paper as [50]
In the citing paper
“Research in psychology has shown that repeated exposure to a stimulus increases preference for it even when listeners are unaware of the repetition (Zajonc 1968;Bornstein 1989)”
From The Algorithmic Flattening of Sound: Computational Evidence and Justice Implications of AI Music Homogenization (2026) · cites this paper as Bornstein 1989
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Halberstadt, J. B., & Rhodes, G. (2003) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196479 · Cited by 173
“However, given the strong appeal of familiarity (Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, 1968) it seems likely that it would also contribute to the attractiveness of average artifacts.”
BackgroundInfluentialGustave Caillebotte, French Impressionism, and mere exposure
Cutting, J. E. (2003) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196493 · Cited by 166
“Bornstein (1989) reviewed the literature on the relation between complexity and preference in laboratory experiments on mere exposure.”
InfluentialFamiliarity mediates the relationship between emotional arousal and pleasure during music listening
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“It is well-known that liking for unfamiliar items typically increases as a function of exposure (Zajonc, 1968; Bornstein, 1989).”
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“…infants do not prefer novel individuals who are associated with any familiar melody presented in a positive social context, despite long-standing findings that people prefer familiar sounds, objects, and patterns over unfamiliar ones, in both adulthood (Zajonc, 2001) and infancy (Bornstein, 1989).”
BackgroundHekkert, P., & Leder, H. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008045089-6.50013-7 · Cited by 167
Boredom as a limiting condition on the mere exposure effect.
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“…effect (e.g., Berlyne 1971; J. E. Crandall, 1970) predict that affect toward a stimulus will continue to increase through a large number of exposures because organisms prefer stimuli that are predictable and do not evoke the "startle" response associated with unfamiliar stimuli (Bornstein, 1989a).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe popularity contest at work: Who wins, why, and what do they receive?
Scott, B. A., & Judge, T. A. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012951 · Cited by 167
“On this point, a substantial amount of research has shown that the more individuals are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively they appraise that stimulus (for a meta-analysis, see Bornstein, 1989). This “mere exposure” effect was first described by Zajonc (1968), who argued that through repeated exposure, novel s…”
BackgroundAttitude and affect: new frontiers of research in the 21st century
Malhotra, N. K. (2003) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/s0148-2963(03)00146-2 · Cited by 172
Hunter, P. G., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2010) · Springer handbook of auditory research · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6114-3_5 · Cited by 163
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“In subsequent work he confirmed that the less aware consumers are of emotional elements in advertising, the better they are likely to work, because the viewer has less opportunity to rationally evaluate, contradict, and weaken their potency (Bornstein, 1992).”
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Eidelman, S., & Crandall, C. S. (2012) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00427.x · Cited by 172
“One way to increase liking for something is repeated exposure over time (Bornstein, 1989; Harrison, 1977; Zajonc, 1968).”
BackgroundFamiliarity, ambivalence, and firm reputation: Is corporate fame a double-edged sword?
Brooks, M. E., Highhouse, S., Russell, S. S., & Mohr, D. C. (2003) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.904 · Cited by 161
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Levav, J., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01687.x · Cited by 149
“Ease of representation may be viewed as one of these factors; respondents may use ease as a fluency cue (Bornstein, 1989; Reber, Winkielman, & Schwarz, 1998).”
BackgroundWegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., Detweiler-Bedell, B. T., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1431 · Cited by 149
“For example, attitudes can change in response to repeated exposure of the attitude object (e.g., Bornstein, 1989) or to conditioning procedures in which no message is presented (e.g., Cacioppo, Marshall-Goodell, Tassinary, & Petty, 1992; see Petty, Priester, & Wegener, 1994; Petty & Wegener, 1998,…”
BackgroundGilbert, D. T. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.011 · Cited by 153
Wakefield, K. L., Becker-Olsen, K. L., & Cornwell, T. B. (2007) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.2753/joa0091-3367360405 · Cited by 152
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The calibration of expert judgment: heuristics and biases beyond the laboratory
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“Furthermore , Bornstein [34] concluded that although it is generally reproductively advantageous to prefer the typical to the novel it is at times advantageous (that is, during child development) to favour novel stimuli.”
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“Even worse, greater familiarity of faces of cheaters without context information might increase the risk of being exploited because of the preference often exhibited towards familiar stimuli (Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, 1968).”
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“…1988); mere exposure effects occur when awareness of exposure is absent and are more pronounced when obtained under subliminal conditions (Bornstein, 1989; Bornstein & D’Agostino, 1992); and people (those with amnesia and those under cognitive load) have been found to justify decisions…”
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“When a concrete stimulus is repeatedly exposed, the preference for that stimulus increases logarithmically as a function of the number of exposures [93].”
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“…effects (Birch et al., 1990; Bolles et al., 1981; Rozin et al., 1998; Sclafani, 1997; Zellner et al., 1983) or `̀ mere exposure'' effects (Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, 1968), whereby repeated exposure leads to an increased liking (Crandall, 1984; Porcherot & Issanchou, 1998; Stang, 1974),…”
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“It is, however, well established that people generally respond positively to familiar stimuli (the mere exposure effect; Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, 1968) and parental traits may be very salient familiar features.”
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“However, consumers tend to avoid risks and exhibit preferences for the familiar rather than the unknown (Bornstein 1989), so those with positive impressions of retailers and brands should seek out these familiar entities online.”
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“Familiarity has been found to increase feelings of attractiveness (e.g. mere exposure (Zajonc 1968; Bornstein 1989)).”
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“There is substantial evidence to show that repeated exposure of product advertising aimed at children can increase preference for the product advertised (Raju and Lonial 1990), and relatively few exposures appear to be necessary (Bornstein 1989) to generate affect toward a stimulus.”
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“This algebraic procedure systematically controls for baseline differences in the attractiveness of different letters, which may result from differential exposure (Bornstein, 1989) or visual features of a given letter (Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002).”
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Generalization of Mere Exposure Effects to Averaged Composite Faces
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“The evidence for generalization was, however, stronger for liking than attractiveness ratings, consistent with Bornstein’s (1989) conclusion that GENERALIZATION OF MERE EXPOSURE 67”
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Facial resemblance increases the attractiveness of same–sex faces more than other–sex faces
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“Both familiarity with a face and its apparent averageness are known to enhance attractiveness judgments (Zajonc, 1968; Bornstein, 1989; Rhodes, Sumich, & Byatt, 1999; Langlois & Roggman, 1990).”
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“The familiarity hypothesis is based on two mechanisms following each other: In a first step, every contact with a stimulus increases its processing fluency, which means it can be processed more easily after the first reception (Bornstein, 1989; Reber, Schwarz, & Winkielman, 2004; Reber, Winkielman, & Schwarz, 1998).”
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“The mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1980; for an overview see Bornstein, 1989) refers to liking for a previously encountered stimulus even when the perceiver cannot remember the stimulus explicitly.”
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“For example, stimuli can differ with regard to whether they were experienced before (as is the case in studies on mere exposure; see Bornstein, 1989, for a review), whether they co-occurred with other valenced stimuli—as is the case in studies on evaluative conditioning (EC), (see De Houwer,…”
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“What appears clear from the exposure literature is that these familiarity judgments occur very quickly and are not mediated by conscious thought (Zajonc 1968; Bornstein 1989; Harmon-Jones and Allen 2001).”
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“This idea is consistent with other research on the ease-liking connection as with the mere-exposure effect, which implies that people tend to like that which they are repeatedly exposed to (e.g. Bornstein, 1989; Zajonc, 1968).”
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“…1992, for a review of this literature).6 6 There have also been non-subliminal priming of mere exposure effects as well, although interestingly in a meta-analysis of these effects, the magnitude of subliminal stimuli was greater than supraliminal (above consciousness) stimuli (Bornstein, 1989).”
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“Repeated exposure has long been known to increase preference for the reexposed stimulus itself (Zajonc, 1968; see Bornstein, 1989, for a review) and for other similar stimuli (Gordon & Holyoak, 1983).”
BackgroundCelhay, F., & Trinquecoste, J. F. (2014) · Journal of Product Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/jpim.12212 · Cited by 132
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Carbon, C., & Leder, H. (2005) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1098 · Cited by 125
“Bornstein (1989) argued that simple stimuli become boring faster than complex stimuli, resulting in a faster decrease of liking after being frequently exposed.”
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“In numerous studies, researchers have confirmed that individuals report more positive affect for stimuli that they have seen multiple times than those that they have seen only once or a few times (see Bornstein [1989] for a review), suggesting that the negative effect of formal control on trust could wane over time.”
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“H2: When electronic agents provide a context of familiar, attractive recommendations and present item-specific information, consumers will contrast unfamiliar and familiar recommendations, which will result in lower evaluations of the unfamiliar recommendation.”
BackgroundStronger suboptimal than optimal affective priming?
Rotteveel, M., de Groot, P., Geutskens, A., & Phaf, R. H. (2001) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.1.4.348 · Cited by 112
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Złotowski, J. A., Sumioka, H., Nishio, S., Glas, D. F., Bartneck, C., & Ishiguro, H. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00883 · Cited by 121
Verbal evaluative conditioning with undetected US presentations
Houwer, J. D., Baeyens, F., & Eelen, P. (1994) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)90017-5 · Cited by 110
Measuring Affective Advertising: Implications of Low Attention Processing on Recall
Heath, R., & Nairn, A. C. (2005) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.1017/s0021849905050282 · Cited by 110
“In the IPA awards, advertising effectiveness is generally deemed to have been proved only when shifts in attitudes or increments in sales or margin can be linked directly to advertising activity (Broadbent, 2000; Roberts, 2002).”
BackgroundChildren's implicit knowledge of harmony in Western music
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Intuitive Hedonics: Consumer Beliefs About the Dynamics of Liking
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“Abstract visual stimuli and music are also often used (Anand & Sternthal, 1991; Heingartner & Hall, 1974; for reviews see Bornstein, 1989, and Harrison, 1977). Zajonc & Rajecki (1969) ran ads of nonsense syllables in college newspapers, varying the number of exposures, and found that the more students had been exposed…”
BackgroundMotormouth: Mere exposure depends on stimulus-specific motor simulations.
Topolinski, S., & Strack, F. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0014504 · Cited by 112
“Because mere exposure effects are more likely to emerge in initially unfamiliar stimuli (Bornstein, 1989; Peretz et al., 1998), we chose unfamiliar sequences of four to nine tones from the stimulus pool provided by Thompson, Balkwill, and Vernecsu (2000), which were also used by Szpunar, Schellenberg, and Pliner, (200…”
MethodNorman, J. A., Kelly, B., McMahon, A., Boyland, E. J., Baur, L. A., Chapman, K. L., King, L. A., Hughes, C., & Bauman, A. E. (2018) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-018-0672-6 · Cited by 118
Symmetry perception and affective responses: A combined EEG/EMG study
Makin, A. D. J., Wilton, M., Pecchinenda, A., & Bertamini, M. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.10.003 · Cited by 108
Aesthetic design of e-commerce web pages – Webpage Complexity, Order and preference
Deng, L., & Poole, M. S. (2012) · Electronic Commerce Research and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.elerap.2012.06.004 · Cited by 107
“There has been consistent evidence for a positive relationship between familiarity and liking (Bornstein 1989, Zajonc 2000), and a negative relationship between familiarity and Perceived Complexity (Radocy and Boyle 1988).”
BackgroundSelective Processing of Threatening Words in Anxiety: The Role of Awareness
Fox, E. (1996) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999396380114 · Cited by 107
Changes in liking for a no added salt soup as a function of exposure
Methven, L., Langreney, E., & Prescott, J. (2012) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.04.012 · Cited by 108
“Changes in liking for a variety of stimuli across a broad range of sensory modalities (Bornstein, 1989) have been demonstrated by simple repetition of the stimulus.”
BackgroundNabi, R. L. (2015) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2014.1000479 · Cited by 108
“Such repeated exposure likely generates greater persuasive potential above and beyond more serious messages, as multiple message exposure is known to enhance message effectiveness (Bornstein, 1989; Harrison, 1977).”
BackgroundExtensional versus Intuitive Reasoning
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.003 · Cited by 111
A Two-Dimensional Model for the Study of Interpersonal Attraction
Montoya, R. M., & Horton, R. S. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868313501887 · Cited by 116
“As an example, the mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968) describes the increase in liking that results from repeated exposure of non-valenced stimuli (for a review, see Bornstein, 1989).”
BackgroundResidential mobility breeds familiarity-seeking.
Oishi, S., Miao, F. F., Koo, M., Kisling, J., & Ratliff, K. A. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024949 · Cited by 117
The Influence of Affect on Attitude
Clore, G. L., & Schnall, S. (2005) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.4324/9781315178103-6 · Cited by 108
Metadata
- Authors
- Bornstein, R. F.
- Affiliations
- Gettysburg College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bornstein, Robert F.
- ORCID
- Bornstein, Robert F.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1989-09
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 265-289
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2051913671
- Cited by
- 1,970
- References
- 195
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 69 · 2017: 62 · 2016: 95 · 2015: 95 · 2014: 80 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 95
- FWCI
- 2.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- exposure, affect, stimulus sensitivity, stimulus complexity, stimulus type, exposure duration, age of exposure, personality, advertising, phobia treatment
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