Cited by 3,334Social and Intergroup PsychologyPersonality Traits and PsychologyPsychological Testing and Assessment

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 5 of the 5 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Impression management: A literature review and two-component model.

Leary, Mark R., Kowalski, Robin M.·1990·Psychological Bulletin

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Impression management, the process by which people control the impressions others form of them, plays an important role in interpersonal behavior. This article presents a 2-component model within which the literature regarding impression management is reviewed. This model conceptualizes im-pression management as being composed of 2 discrete processes. The 1st involves impression moti-vation—the degree to which people are motivated to control how others see them. Impression moti-vation is conceptualized as a function of 3 factors: the goal-relevance of the impressions one creates, the value of desired outcomes, and the discrepancy between current and desired images. The 2nd component involves impression construction. Five factors appear to determine the kinds of impres-sions people try to construct: the self-concept, desired and undesired identity images, role con-straints, target's values, and current social image. The 2-component model provides coherence to the literature in the area, addresses controversial issues, and supplies a framework for future research regarding impression management. People have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Each year, Americans spend billions of dollars on diets, cosmetics, and plastic surgery—all intended to make

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34

Cites

5 of 5 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902
Plans and the structure of behavior.
Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960) · doi:10.1037/10039-000 · Cited by 4,630
Cognitive consequences of forced compliance.
Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959) · The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041593 · Cited by 2,945
Public Self and Private Self
(1986) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9564-5 · Cited by 849
Effects of embarrassment on behavior toward others.
Apsler, R. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0076699 · Cited by 134

Show all 5 references

Sorted by citations

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245
Self-citation
Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355 · Cited by 5,881
Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1252 · Cited by 5,312
I tweet honestly, I tweet passionately: Twitter users, context collapse, and the imagined audience
Marwick, A. E., & boyd, D. (2011) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444810365313 · Cited by 4,612
Is There Social Capital in a Social Network Site?: Facebook Use and College Students' Life Satisfaction, Trust, and Participation
Valenzuela, S., Park, N., & Kee, K. F. (2009) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01474.x · Cited by 2,229
Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content.
Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338 · Cited by 2,319
Is the desire for status a fundamental human motive? A review of the empirical literature.
Anderson, C., Hildreth, J. A. D., & Howland, L. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038781 · Cited by 1,133
It's only a computer: virtual humans increase willingness to disclose
Lucas, G. M., Gratch, J., King, A., & Morency, L.-P. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.043 · Cited by 977
Self-Enhancement: Food for Thought
Sedikides, C., & Gregg, A. P. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00068.x · Cited by 880
Self-regulation and self-presentation: Regulatory resource depletion impairs impression management and effortful self-presentation depletes regulatory resources
Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., & Ciarocco, N. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.632 · Cited by 859
Getting a cue: the need to belong and enhanced sensitivity to social cues
Pickett, C. L., Gardner, W. L., & Knowles, M. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203262085 · Cited by 862
The privacy paradox – investigating discrepancies between expressed privacy concerns and actual online behavior – a systematic literature review
Barth, S., & de Jong, M. D. T. (2017) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2017.04.013 · Cited by 798
“Optimistic Bias Theory (Irwin, 1953) Individuals have a tendency to underestimate the likelihood of experiencing adverse events.”
BackgroundInfluential
The generation of sensory expectation by external cues and its effect on sensory perception and hedonic ratings: A review
DELIZA, R., & MacFIE, H. J. H. (1996) · Journal of Sensory Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1745-459x.1996.tb00036.x · Cited by 763
Panacea or Panopticon?: The Hidden Power in Computer-Mediated Communication
SPEARS, R., & LEA, M. (1994) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365094021004001 · Cited by 705
Influence tactics and work outcomes: a meta analysis
Higgins, C. A., Judge, T. A., & Ferris, G. R. (2003) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.181 · Cited by 573
Norms of online expressions of emotion: Comparing Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and WhatsApp
Waterloo, S. F., Baumgartner, S. E., Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2018) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444817707349 · Cited by 549
Development and validation of the camouflaging autistic traits questionnaire (CAT-Q)
Hull, L., Mandy, W., Lai, M.-C., Baron-Cohen, S., Allison, C., Smith, P., & Petrides, K. V. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3792-6 · Cited by 496
Why Do We Need What We Need? A Terror Management Perspective on the Roots of Human Social Motivation
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (1997) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0801_1 · Cited by 497
Variance in faking across noncognitive measures.
McFarland, L. A., & Ryan, A. M. (2000) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.812 · Cited by 410
Online Impression Management: Personality Traits and Concerns for Secondary Goals as Predictors of Self-Presentation Tactics on Facebook
Rosenberg, J., & Egbert, N. (2011) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2011.01560.x · Cited by 399
Anonymity and Self-Disclosure on Weblogs
Qian, H., & Scott, C. R. (2007) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00380.x · Cited by 343
Behavioral processes underlying the decline of narcissists’ popularity over time.
Leckelt, M., Küfner, A. C. P., Nestler, S., & Back, M. D. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000057 · Cited by 302
Research Note—Why Following Friends Can Hurt You: An Exploratory Investigation of the Effects of Envy on Social Networking Sites among College-Age Users
Krasnova, H., Widjaja, T., Buxmann, P., Wenninger, H., & Benbasat, I. (2015) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.2015.0588 · Cited by 304
The use of impression management tactics in structured interviews: A function of question type?
Ellis, A. P. J., West, B. J., Ryan, A. M., & DeShon, R. P. (2002) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1200 · Cited by 293
Insensitivity to social reputation in autism
Izuma, K., Matsumoto, K., Camerer, C. F., & Adolphs, R. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1107038108 · Cited by 243
How People Form Folk Theories of Social Media Feeds and What it Means for How We Study Self-Presentation
DeVito, M. A., Birnholtz, J., Hancock, J. T., French, M., & Liu, S. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3173574.3173694 · Cited by 244
Beliefs about God, the afterlife and morality support the role of supernatural policing in human cooperation
Atkinson, Q. D., & Bourrat, P. (2011) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.07.008 · Cited by 225
Social anxiety in young gay men
Pachankis, J. E., & Goldfried, M. R. (2006) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.01.001 · Cited by 221
Mechanisms linking social media use to adolescent mental health vulnerability
Orben, A., Meier, A., Dalgleish, T., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2024) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00307-y · Cited by 220
Self-Presentation in Social Media: Review and Research Opportunities
Erin E., H., & Kent State University, U. (2021) · Review of Communication Research · doi:10.12840/issn.2255-4165.027 · Cited by 193
Consciousness of Social Face: The Development and Validation of a Scale Measuring Desire to Gain Face Versus Fear of Losing Face
Zhang, X.-A., Cao, Q., & Grigoriou, N. (2011) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224540903366669 · Cited by 191
Social comparison on Facebook: Its antecedents and psychological outcomes
Jang, K., Park, N., & Song, H. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.082 · Cited by 166
Narcissism and self-presentation: Profiling grandiose and vulnerable Narcissists' self-presentation tactic use
Hart, W., Adams, J., Burton, K. A., & Tortoriello, G. K. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.062 · Cited by 143
Reconsidering autistic ‘camouflaging’ as transactional impression management
Ai, W., Cunningham, W. A., & Lai, M.-C. (2022) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2022.05.002 · Cited by 140
How the intention to share can undermine enjoyment: photo-taking goals and evaluation of experiences
Barasch, A., Zauberman, G., & Diehl, K. (2018) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucx112 · Cited by 128
The Role of Metaperception on the Effectiveness of Referral Reward Programs
Wirtz, J., Orsingher, C., Chew, P., & Tambyah, S. K. (2013) · Journal of Service Research · doi:10.1177/1094670512462138 · Cited by 119
Identity Concerns Following a Severe Relational Transgression: The Role of Discovery Method for the Relational Outcomes of Infidelity
Afifi, W. A., Falato, W. L., & Weiner, J. L. (2001) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407501182007 · Cited by 114
Choking under pressure: theoretical models and interventions
Mesagno, C., & Beckmann, J. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.015 · Cited by 114
Understanding and combating misperceived polarization
Lees, J., & Cikara, M. (2021) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B · doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0143 · Cited by 113
Women on display: The effect of portraying the self online on women’s self-objectification
de Vries, D. A., & Peter, J. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.015 · Cited by 101
Keeping it between us: Managerial endorsement of public versus private voice.
Isaakyan, S., Sherf, E. N., Tangirala, S., & Guenter, H. (2021) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000816 · Cited by 100
Privacy Concerns and Self-Disclosure in Private and Public Uses of Social Media
Gruzd, A., & Hernández-García, Á. (2018) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2017.0709 · Cited by 97
Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem.
Gebauer, J. E., Sedikides, C., Wagner, J., Bleidorn, W., Rentfrow, P. J., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000052 · Cited by 84
Exploring athletes’ perceptions of coach stress in elite sport environments
Thelwell, R. C., Wagstaff, C. R. D., Rayner, A., Chapman, M., & Barker, J. (2017) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1154979 · Cited by 85
Sensitivity shift theory: a developmental model of positive affect and motivational deficits in social anxiety disorder
Richey, J. A., Brewer, J. A., Sullivan-Toole, H., Strege, M. V., Kim-Spoon, J., White, S. W., & Ollendick, T. H. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101756 · Cited by 79
On Versus Off the Pitch: The Transiency of Body Satisfaction Among Female Rugby Players, Cricketers, and Netballers
Russell, K. M. (2004) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-004-5466-4 · Cited by 78
Big five model and trait emotional intelligence in camouflaging behaviours in autism
Robinson, E., Hull, L., & Petrides, K. V. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109565 · Cited by 70
Do Online Privacy Concerns Predict Selfie Behavior among Adolescents, Young Adults and Adults?
Dhir, A., Torsheim, T., Pallesen, S., & Andreassen, C. S. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00815 · Cited by 69
A meta-ethnography of autistic people’s experiences of social camouflaging and its relationship with mental health
Field, S. L., Williams, M. O., Jones, C. R. G., & Fox, J. R. E. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231223036 · Cited by 45
“Camouflaging has also been considered to potentially overlap with impression management (Leary & Kowalski, 1990).”
Background
Linking online self-presentation to identity coherence, identity confusion, and social anxiety in emerging adulthood
Michikyan, M. (2020) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12337 · Cited by 44
Cybervetting job applicants on social media: the new normal?
Jacobson, J., & Gruzd, A. (2020) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-020-09526-2 · Cited by 44
Be Yourself: The Relative Importance of Personal and Social Norms for Adolescents’ Self-Presentation on Instagram
Zillich, A. F., & Riesmeyer, C. (2021) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051211033810 · Cited by 41
Linking servant leadership to follower emotional exhaustion through impression management
Peng, A. C., Gao, R., & Wang, B. (2023) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2682 · Cited by 37
Candidate persistence and personality test practice effects: Implications for staffing system management
HAUSKNECHT, J. P. (2010) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01171.x · Cited by 35
"Social credit effect" in a sharing economy: A theory of mind and prisoner's dilemma game theory perspective on the two-way review and rating system
Moriuchi, E. (2020) · Psychology & Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21301 · Cited by 32
Making nice or faking nice? Exploring supervisors’ two-faced response to their past abusive behavior
McClean, S. T., Courtright, S. H., Yim, J., & Smith, T. A. (2021) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12424 · Cited by 28
Psychological theories of blushing
Leary, M. R., & Toner, K. (2012) · The Psychological Significance of the Blush · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139012850.007 · Cited by 26
Self-citation
Backlash for high self‐promotion at hiring depends on candidates' gender and age
Krings, F., Manoharan, S., & Mendes de Oliveira, A. (2023) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12410 · Cited by 15
The Impact of Social Norms on Adolescents’ Self-Presentation Practices on Social Media
Zillich, A. F., & Wunderlich, A. (2024) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051241299829 · Cited by 24
“Therefore, this study conceptualizes self-presentation as quite broad and holistic (see also Leary & Kowalski, 1990).”
The Usage Behaviors, Motivations and Gratifications of Using User-Generated Media: The Case Study of Taiwan’s YouTube
Wang, T.-L. (2014) · Advances in Journalism and Communication · doi:10.4236/ajc.2014.24015 · Cited by 11

Authors: Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M.
Affiliations: Wake Forest University (US)
ORCID: Leary, Mark R.
Kowalski, Robin M.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1990-01
Volume: 107
Issue: 1
Pages: 34-47
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34
OpenAlex: W2124668684
Cited by: 3,334
References: 5
Citations by year: 2026: 245 · 2025: 212 · 2024: 191 · 2023: 186 · 2022: 196 · 2021: 198 · 2020: 169 · 2019: 161 · 2018: 185 · 2017: 162 · 2016: 170 · 2015: 166 · 2014: 154 · 2013: 118 · 2012: 103
FWCI: 46.39
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Keywords: impression management, impression motivation, two-component model, self-concept, identity images, role constraints, interpersonal behavior, self-presentation, social image

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Impression management: A literature review and two-component model.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Metadata

Record

About these checks