The privacy paradox – investigating discrepancies between expressed privacy concerns and actual online behavior – a systematic literature review

May combine two claims.

A user's ability to access all the relevant information is bounded by nature, leading to a situation where the risks are deemed to be outweighed by benefits.

“A user's ability to access all the relevant information is bounded by nature, leading to a situation where the risks are deemed to be outweighed by benefits (Deuker, 2010).”

• cites Deuker, 2010 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3 says users have limited ability to access and process decision-relevant information, and that their processing and reasoning capabilities are restricted by nature. But it says bounded rationality can lead to either over- or underestimation of privacy risks; it does not establish that limited access itself causes users to judge benefits as outweighing risks. The separate discussion of immediate gratification says benefits can lead users to underestimate privacy risks. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Personalization, convenience, economic benefits and social advantages will suppress the perception of risks while over-emphasizing the perceived benefits of privacy disclosure.

“In such instances, personalization, convenience, economic benefits and social advantages will suppress the perception of risks while over-emphasizing the perceived benefits of privacy disclosure (Wilson and Valacich, 2012).”

• cites Wilson and Valacich, 2012Partly supported

  In “Perceived Benefits of Privacy Disclosure” (page not provided), the paper identifies economic, personalization or convenience, and social benefits as factors that tend to counteract the negative effect of perceived risks. It hypothesizes that these benefits increase perceived benefits of disclosure, but does not say that the benefit types themselves suppress the perception of risks or necessarily cause benefits to be over-emphasized; its risk-perception hypothesis concerns benefit immediacy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Even if people theoretically have all of the necessary privacy-relevant information, they are unable to make proper sense of all of the information, leading to the application of simplified mental models that often favor the benefits.

“Even if people theoretically have all of the necessary privacy-relevant information, they are unable to make proper sense of all of the information.This leads to the application of simplified mental models that are often favor the benefits (Pötzsch, 2009).”

• cites Pötzsch, 2009 sourcePartly supported

  The “Consider cognitive boundaries” section says that even with all privacy-relevant information available, people cannot use it all to make a rational decision and instead apply a simplified mental model. Section 3.2, “Balancing Values,” says privacy costs can become less salient while benefits are advertised. It does not establish that the simplified mental models themselves often favor benefits or that the cognitive limitation causes that preference. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Individuals tend to heavily discount the low probability of high future risks, resulting in a preference for almost instantaneous benefits.

“Thus, individuals tend to heavily discount the low probability of high future risks (e.g.identity theft), resulting in a preference for almost instantaneous benefits (Acquisti, 2004;Acquisti and Grossklags, 2005;Deuker, 2010;Flender and Müller, 2012;Hughes-Roberts, 2013).”

• cites Acquisti, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Acquisti and Grossklags, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Deuker, 2010 sourcePartly supported

  The section on immediate gratification says that immediate benefits can lead users to underestimate future privacy risks, and Section 3 says users give less weight to privacy threats that arise later. The copy does not characterize those risks as low-probability but high-impact, establish that they are heavily discounted, or give identity theft as an example. No page numbers were provided. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Individuals encounter self-control problems due to immediate gratifications (present bias) which leads to behavior that may backfire in the long run.

“Quite often, individuals encounter self-control problems due to immediate gratifications (present bias) which leads to behavior that may backfire in the long run.”

• cites O'Donoghue and Rabin, 2001 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If there is a choice, individuals usually choose a small benefit in the short term over a larger benefit in the longer term.

“If there is a choice, individuals usually choose a small benefit in the short term over a larger benefit in the longer term.”

• cites Laibson, 1997 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes a high short-term discount rate and gives an example of postponing savings to avoid an immediate sacrifice. That supports a preference for near-term benefits in some circumstances, but the paper does not establish that individuals usually choose a smaller near-term benefit over a larger later one whenever offered that choice. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The main category where no or marginal risk assessment takes place accounts for three sub-categories: (2a) value of desired goals outweighs risks assessed, (2b) privacy valuation failed, and (2c) knowledge deficiency due to incomplete information.

“(2a) value of desired goals outweighs risks assessed.Additionally, this process is largely determined by in-and out-group considerations, (2b) the privacy valuation failed, and (2c) a knowledge deficiency eventuates as a result of incomplete information.”

May combine two claims.

A user's decision-making process as it pertains to the willingness to divulge privacy information is generally driven by two considerations: (1) risk-benefit evaluation and (2) risk assessment deemed none or negligible.

“we determined that a user's decision-making process as it pertains to the willingness to divulge privacy information is generally driven by two considerations: (1) risk-benefit evaluation and (2) risk assessment deemed be none or negligible.”

May combine two claims.

The majority of analyzed studies showed that theories to explain the privacy paradox can be characterized by non-rational processes of decision-making, where risk assessment within the risk-benefit calculation is biased by internal or external forces.

“However, the majority of the analyzed studies showed a markedly different tendency as the theories to explain the privacy paradox can be characterized by the non-rational processes of decision-making.Here, the risk assessment within the risk-benefit calculation is biased by internal or external forces.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The previously discussed theories show that the decision process as it pertains to information disclosure is guided by rational cost-benefit calculations where benefits outweigh risks.

“The previously discussed theories show that the decision process as it pertains to information disclosure is guided by rational cost-benefit calculations where benefits outweigh risks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Quite often, users are not consciously aware of such a bias and as a consequence choose benefits while ignoring accompanied risks.

“Quite often, users are not consciously aware of such a bias and as a consequence, choose benefits while ignoring accompanied risks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The searches resulted in an item set of 110 articles.

“These searches resulted in an item set of 110 articles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Category (1b) can be further divided into five types of biases influencing the calculation process: heuristics, under- and/or overestimation of risks and benefits, immediate gratifications, difference between judgments of risks and benefits, and habit.

“Category (1b) can be further divided into five different types of biases influencing the calculation process: (I) heuristics, (II) under-and/or overestimation of risks and benefits, (III) (immediate) gratifications, (IV) difference between judgments of risks and benefits, and (V) habit.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The systematic literature review sample comprised 32 full papers that accounted for 35 theories in total.

“Drawing on a sample of 32 full papers that explore 35 theories in total”

• Also stated in: § 2. Method · plain

  “This eventually resulted in a final sample of N = 32 full papers that accounted for 35 theories in total.”

May combine two claims.

The majority of theories centered around a given cost-benefit calculation, with most favoring benefits over costs.

“Furthermore, the majority of theories centered around a given cost-benefit calculation, with most favoring benefits over costs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Both calculation processes ultimately lead to paradoxical behavior.

“Both calculation processes ultimately lead to paradoxical behavior eventually.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The risk-benefit calculation category can be divided into (1a) a largely rational calculation of risks and benefits where benefits outweigh risks, and (1b) a calculation process where risk assessment is biased and benefits are prevalent.

“The risk-benefit calculation category can be further divided into (1a) a largely rational calculation of risks and benefits whereas benefits outweigh risks, and (1b) a calculation process but risk assessment is biased and benefits are prevalent as a result.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In other cases, the risk-benefit assessment is not completely rationally calculated, but is subject to factors such as time constraints, immediate gratification or optimistic bias.

“In other cases, the risk-benefit assessment is not completely rationally calculated, rather subject to and influenced by factors such as time constraints, immediate gratification or optimistic bias.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The majority of research into the privacy paradox considers general internet activities with a focus on e-commerce and social networking activities in particular.

“The majority of research into the privacy paradox considers general internet activities with a focus on e-commerce and social networking activities in particular.”

May combine two claims.

These biases are often nonconscious but play a major part in the eventual decision-making.

“These biases are often nonconscious but play a major part in the eventual decision-making.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A decision is usually rapidly derived without an orderly subsequent analysis of the situation.

“Hence, a decision is usually rapidly derived without an orderly subsequent analysis of the situation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Heuristics can lead to biases and an approach that has been successful in the past is no guarantee that it will prove suitable in another situation.

“However, heuristics can lead to biases and an approach that has been successful in the past is no guarantee that it will prove suitable in another situation.”

May combine two claims.

Most studies have researched privacy as a stable concept or used conventional polls that are not suitable for studying online privacy.

“However, most studies have researched privacy as a stable concept (Xu et al., 2010) or used conventional polls that are not suitable for studying online privacy (Baek, 2014).”

• cites Xu et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Baek, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Heuristics hinder individuals from developing new ideas and alternative solutions.

“Furthermore, heuristics hinder individuals from developing new ideas and alternative solutions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Privacy concerns seem to be highly situation-dependent and can be described as a fluent concept that changes over time.

“Privacy concerns seem to be highly situation-dependent and can be described as a fluent concept that changes over time.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

The systematic literature review identified three categories of decision-making affecting information privacy: rational risk-benefit calculation, irrational risk-benefit calculation with biased risk assessment, and negligible or no risk assessment.

“The systematic literature brought three decision-making categories effecting information privacy to light.First, decisionmaking can be divided into either a rational calculation of risk and benefits, or an irrational risk-benefit calculation characterized by biased risk assessment.”

• Also stated in: § 4.1. Categories of decision making in the context of information privacy · plain

  “The third category of decision-making describes processes in which negligible or no risk assessment takes place.”

May combine two claims.

Attitude and intention are not actual behavior, and actual behavior is seldom measured in the studies.

“Attitude and intention are not actual behavior and actual behavior is seldom measured in the studies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This observation has not been researched to date.

“This observation has not been researched to date, despite the fact that this might play an inherent role in solving the privacy paradox problem.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Research on the tendency to organize mobile application use according to goal orientation is still scarce.

“However, research on this tendency is still scarce and should not be neglected when looking for solutions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Attempts to theoretically explain and practically solve the problem of the privacy paradox are still scarce.

“attempts to theoretically explain and practically solve the problem of the privacy paradox are still scarce”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Only full, peer-reviewed papers, peer-reviewed conference papers and published book-chapters were included.

“Overall, only full, peer-reviewed papers, peer-reviewed conference papers and published book-chapters were included.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Articles that dealt with privacy issues and concerns in general were not included.

“Articles that dealt with privacy issues and concerns in general were not included.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The electronic database literature search was conducted in GoogleScholar, Scopus, IEEE, Web of Science and ACM.

“An electronic database literature search was conducted in GoogleScholar, Scopus, IEEE, Web of Science and ACM.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Risk-benefit calculation plays a major role in the context of information privacy, known as the freedom to decide with whom, how and to what extent personal data is shared.

“Risk-benefit calculation plays a major role in the context of information privacy, known as the freedom to decide with whom, how and to what extent personal data is shared (Li et al., 2010).”

• cites Li et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Users claim to be very concerned about their privacy but do very little to protect their personal data (the privacy paradox).

“While users claim to be very concerned about their privacy, they nevertheless undertake very little to protect their personal data.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “This discrepancy between the expressed concern and the actual behavior of users is a phenomenon known as the privacy paradox: users claim to be very concerned about their privacy but do very little to protect their personal data.”

• Also stated in: § 1.1. The privacy paradox · boosted

  “Known as the privacy paradox, it is a documented fact that users have a tendency towards privacy-compromising behavior online which eventually results in a dichotomy between privacy attitudes and actual behavior (Acquisti, 2004;Barnes, 2006).”

• cites Acquisti, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Barnes, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Only subject articles in which the phenomenon of privacy paradox was explicitly mentioned and discussed were considered eligible.

“Only the subject articles in which the phenomenon of privacy paradox was explicitly mentioned and discussed were considered eligible.”

May combine two claims.

Intention and actual behavior are positively influenced by expected benefits but also negatively affected by associated costs.

“Hence, intention and actual behavior are positively influenced by expected benefits (e.g. using an app) but also negatively affected by associated costs (e.g.possible data usage by third parties) (Culnan and Armstrong, 1999).”

• cites Culnan and Armstrong, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The cognitive style of decision-making during risk-benefit calculations is both analytical and conscious and can be described as logical, cause and effect, rule-based, hierarchical, sequential, process-oriented, slower to implement but quicker to change, high effort, oriented toward delayed action, conscious, and experienced actively with the individual aware of and in control of the process.

“The cognitive style of decision-making during risk-benefit calculations is both analytical and conscious and can be described as 'logical, cause and effect, rule-based, hierarchical, sequential, process-oriented, slower to implement but quicker to change, high effort, oriented toward delayed action, conscious, and experienced actively with the individual aware of and in control of the process' (p.”

• cites Novak and Hoffman, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A manual search of reference lists was conducted to identify additional papers that may have been missed by the electronic database search.

“Furthermore, a manual search of reference lists was conducted to identify additional papers that may have been missed by the electronic database search.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Extraversion and agreeableness increased perceived benefits from the use of mobile applications, regardless of the cultural environment.

“Extraversion and agreeableness increased perceived benefits from the use of mobile applications, regardless of the cultural environment.”

• cites Pentina et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Only articles that discussed the privacy paradox explicitly with the aid of a theory or theoretical concept were included in the final sample.

“Only articles that discussed the privacy paradox explicitly with the aid of a theory or theoretical concept were included in the final sample.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Quite often, the perceived benefits outweigh the perceived risks, which eventually leads to the neglecting of privacy concerns that often results in the disclosure of information in exchange for social or economic benefit.

“Quite often, the perceived benefits outweigh the perceived risks, which eventually leads to the neglecting of privacy concerns that often results in the disclosure of information in exchange for social or economic benefit (Privacy Calculus Theory; Culnan and Armstrong, 1999).”

• cites Culnan and Armstrong, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The stronger the intention, the more likely it is that a person will engage in a certain behavior.

“The stronger the intention, the more likely it is that a person will engage in a certain behavior.”

• cites Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The decision-making process is based on three beliefs: valence, expectancy, and instrumentality.

“Here, the decision-making process is based on three beliefs: (1) valence (emotional attitude towards a particular outcome and the allure of receiving a reward); (2) expectancy (self-confidence to do s.th.); and (3) instrumentality (perception of the probability of gaining reward).”

• cites Vroom, 1964Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Privacy concerns are considered but most individuals are unable to address them adequately.

“Thus, privacy concerns are considered but most individuals are unable to address them adequately (Phelan et al., 2016).”

• cites Phelan et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the context of social networking sites, teenagers in particular operate under bounded rationality and risk assessment takes place according to personal experiences pertaining to privacy invasion and not hypothetically in advance.

“In the context of social networking sites, teenagers in particular operate under bounded rationality and risk assessment takes place according to personal experiences pertaining to privacy invasion and not hypothetically in advance (Jia et al., 2015).”

• cites Jia et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The stronger such attitudes, perceived control and the compliance with social norms are, the more likely it is that an individual will engage in a certain behavior.

“The stronger such attitudes, perceived control and the compliance with social norms are, the more likely it is that an individual will engage in a certain behavior.”

• cites Ajzen, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Based on a subjective belief system, an individual chooses a certain behavior over another because of the expected outcome of maximizing benefits while minimizing costs.

“Based on a subjective belief system, an individual chooses a certain behavior over another because of the expected outcome of maximizing benefits while minimizing costs (Expectancy Theory; Vroom, 1964).”

• cites Vroom, 1964Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The experiential processes are associative, emotional, low effort, rapid to implement but slow to change, parallel, immediate, outcome-oriented, holistic, preconscious and experienced passively with the process opaque to the individual.

“The experiential processes are 'associative, emotional, low effort, rapid to implement but slow to change, parallel, immediate, outcome-oriented, holistic, preconscious and experienced passively with the process opaque to the individual' (p.57, Novak and Hoffman, 2008).”

• cites Novak and Hoffman, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Individuals constantly try to rationally maximize benefits but decision-making can only be rational within the limits of cognitive ability and available time.

“Individuals constantly try to rationally maximize benefits but decision-making can only be rational within the limits of cognitive ability and available time (Theory of Bounded Rationality; Simon, 1982).”

• cites Simon, 1982Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Fundamentalists expressed higher privacy valuation than those with a more pragmatic stance or unconcerned individuals.

“Fundamentalists for example (those highly concerned about data sharing with third parties and unwilling to place ongoing trust in particular organizations) expressed higher privacy valuation than those with a more pragmatic stance (concerned about data-sharing practices but willing to engage in privacy calculus activities), or unconcerned individuals (willing to share data, also with third parties”

• cites Motiwalla et al., 2014Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Intense intuitive concern may be overruled (but not reduced) by less intense concerns resulting from conscious consideration.

“Intense intuitive concern may be overruled (but not reduced) by less intense concerns resulting from conscious consideration.”

• cites Kahneman, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Privacy concerns did not have any influence on the adoption and use of mobile applications.

“Privacy concerns did not have any influence on the adoption and use of mobile applications.”

• cites Pentina et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

From their subjective point of view, the decision process may well appear rational.

“However, from their subjective point of view, the decision process may well appear rational (Flender and Müller, 2012).”

• cites Flender and Müller, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Theory of Reasoned Action states that an individual's behavioral intention depends on the attitude towards a certain behavior and the subjective norms.

“Taking the intentional perspective of a given rational behavior into account, the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) states that an individual's behavioral intention depends on the attitude towards a certain behavior and the subjective norms.”

• cites Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Theory of Planned Behavior states that behavioral intention is influenced by existing attitudes about desired outcomes, social norms and the evaluation of the risk-benefit of that outcome (perceived behavioral control).

“The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985) takes this a step further as behavioral intention is influenced by existing attitudes about desired outcomes, social norms and the evaluation of the risk-benefit of that outcome (perceived behavioral control).”

• cites Ajzen, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Actual control may be the missing variable that could explain the discrepancy between intention and behavior.

“Actual control may be the missing variable that could explain the discrepancy between intention and behavior.”

May combine two claims.

Sundar et al. (2013) found that privacy disclosure behavior in an online context is determined heuristically rather than systematically, which leads to a positive attitude towards information disclosure.

“Also Sundar et al. (2013) found that privacy disclosure behavior in an online context is determined heuristically rather than systematically, which leads to a positive attitude towards information disclosure.”

• cites Sundar et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Being in a good mood lets people evaluate targets or situations as more positive than they may be.

“For instance, being in a good mood lets people evaluate targets or situations as more positive than they may be.”

• cites Schwarz, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The technical processes underlying mobile computing exceed the comprehension of most users.

“We would argue that the technical processes underlying mobile computing exceed the comprehension of most users.”

May combine two claims.

Individuals tend to underestimate their own risk of privacy invasion while overestimating the chances that others will experience adverse events.

“Individuals tend to underestimate their own risk of privacy invasion while overestimating the chances that others will experience adverse events.”

• cites Acquisti, 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Flender and Müller, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kehr et al. (2015) concluded that the privacy paradox may result from misleading situational cues which bias cognitive valuation processes and the prevalence of situation-specific considerations as compared to generic attitudes.

“In reference to cognitive heuristics and mental shortcuts, Kehr et al. (2015) concluded that the privacy paradox may result from misleading situational cues which bias cognitive valuation processes (e.g.affective thinking) and the prevalence of situation-specific considerations as compared to generic attitudes (Extension to the Privacy Calculus Theory).”

• cites Kehr et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Privacy disclosure intention is determined by situational cues even if dispositional attitudes regarding privacy behavior are different to intention.

“Eventually, privacy disclosure intention is determined by situational cues even if dispositional attitudes regarding privacy behavior are different to intention.”

• cites Kehr et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Privacy decisions are driven by situation-specific privacy assessment, general dispositions and affect-based heuristics.

“The study of Kehr et al. (2015) showed that privacy decisions are driven by situation-specific privacy assessment, general dispositions (i.e.general privacy concerns, institutional trust) and affect-based heuristics (quite often subconscious processes).”

• cites Kehr et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cues-Filtered-Out Theory implies that individuals disclose more personal data in computer-mediated communication settings compared to face-to-face settings due to the absence of social and contextual cues leading to disclosure of information online despite general privacy concerns.

“Cues-Filtered-Out Theory (Sproull andKiesler, 1986, 1991) implies that individuals disclose more personal data in computermediated communication settings compared to face-to-face settings due to the absence of social and contextual cues leading to disclosure of information online despite general privacy concerns (Pötzsch et al., 2010).”

• cites Sproull and Kiesler, 1986, 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Pötzsch et al., 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Being in a positive mood positively influences privacy protection attitude, whereas being in a negative mood increases risk perception.

“Being in a positive mood positively influences privacy protection attitude, whereas being in a negative mood increases risk perception (Kehr et al., 2014).”

• cites Kehr et al., 2014Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Judgments are based on feelings of ease or difficulty, as situation or targets that are easy to process are evaluated as more likely to be of less risk and more valuable.

“Furthermore, judgments are based on feelings of ease or difficulty, as situation or targets that are easy to process are evaluated as more likely to be of less risk and more valuable.”

• cites Schwarz, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Social life is more than individual acts, yet it is determined by social forces such as traditions, institutions and moral codes.

“Considering interpersonal relationships, social life is more than individual acts, yet it is determined by social forces such as traditions, institutions and moral codes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When considering emotional factors during decision-making processes, individuals rely upon their feelings, which generally leads to accurate responses but not always.

“When considering emotional factors during decision-making processes, individuals rely upon their feelings (mood, meta-cognition, emotion and body sensation), which generally leads to accurate responses but not always (Feeling-as-Information Theory; Schwarz, 2011).”

• cites Schwarz, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The majority of users do not possess the expertise nor the experience to engage in what would be considered appropriate protective behavior for mobile apps.

“However, such protection measures are not easily accessible while downloading and installing apps, suggesting that the majority of users do not possess the expertise nor the experience to engage in what would be considered appropriate protective behavior.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mental short-cuts allow individuals to come to decisions quickly while suppressing any urge to think about the next action.

“Mental short-cuts allow individuals to come to decisions quickly while suppressing any urge to think about the next action (Cognitive Heuristics; Tversky and Kahneman, 1975).”

• cites Tversky and Kahneman, 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The desire to own a particular app seems to outweigh potential risks all too often, making it harder to overcome the privacy paradox.

“This makes it even harder to overcome the privacy paradox as the desire to own a particular app seems to outweigh potential risks all too often.”

May combine two claims.

Individuals tend to organize their use of mobile applications according to goal orientation, with users showing a higher susceptibility to accepting privacy and security intrusions when compared to less important applications.

“Furthermore, individuals tend to organize their use of mobile applications according to goal orientation, with users showing a higher susceptibility to accepting privacy and security intrusions (e.g. a banking app) when compared to less important applications (e.g. a gaming app) (Shklovski et al., 2014).”

• cites Shklovski et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Low transparency about data usage by provider companies leads to misinformation and misinterpretation of how third parties will utilize users' information and data disclosure despite privacy concerns.

“This situation, in combination with low transparency as it pertains to data usage by provider companies, eventually leads to misinformation and misinterpretation of how third parties will utilize users' information and data disclosure despite privacy concerns (Young and Quan-Haase, 2013).”

• cites Young and Quan-Haase, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The contradictory behavior of privacy protection occurs because privacy, as a concept, is not yet integrated into an individual's social representation.

“According to Oetzel and Gonja (2011), the contradictory behavior of privacy protection occurs because privacy, as a concept, is not yet integrated into an individual's social representation.”

• cites Oetzel and Gonja (2011) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Users become aware of the consequences of sharing information at a social privacy level but not at an institutional privacy level.

“By doing so, users become aware of the consequences of sharing information at a social privacy level but not at an institutional privacy level.”

• cites Young and Quan-Haase, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Users are lacking in privacy protection knowledge at both the technological and legal levels, leading to misinterpretation of the likelihood of actual privacy violations and to inaccurate predictions of future hazards.

“This implies that users are lacking in privacy protection knowledge, at both the technological and legal levels; leading to misinterpretation of the likelihood of actual privacy violations and to inaccurate predictions of future hazards (Acquisti and Grossklags, 2005).”

• cites Acquisti and Grossklags, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Habit probably inhibits engagement in privacy management tools on social networks, despite increased experience with social networking, leading to a disconnection between privacy concerns and behaviors.

“Quinn (2016) found that habit (habit was identified as one out of nine uses and gratifications) probably inhibits engagement in privacy management tools on social networks, despite increased experience with social networking, which eventually leads to a disconnection between privacy concerns and behaviors.”

• cites Quinn (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Self-presentation (impression management) is the process by which individuals try to control the impression they make on others.

“Self-presentation (impression management) is the process by which individuals try to control the impression the make on others.”

• cites Leary and Kowalski, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Rule-of-thumb strategies play an important role in decision making.

“Rule-of-thumb strategies play an important role in decision”

• cites Tversky and Kahneman, 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The privacy paradox may result from misleading situational cues which bias the cognitive valuation processes and the prevalence of situation-specific considerations as compared to generic attitudes.

“The privacy paradox may result from misleading situational cues which bias the cognitive valuation processes (e.g.affective thinking) and the prevalence of situation-specific considerations as compared to generic attitudes.”

• cites Culnan and Armstrong, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Heuristics can lead to biases because something that has been applicable in the past is not necessarily suitable in another situation.

“But heuristics can lead to biases as something that has been applicable in the past, is not necessarily suitable in another situation.”

• cites Tversky and Kahneman, 1975 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Users express a desire for transparency and information control but are not able to act according to their needs for privacy.

“Users express a desire for transparency and information control but are not able to act according to their needs for privacy (Shklovski et al., 2014).”

• cites Shklovski et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Individuals feel indirect pressure to change their own behavior in order to conform to an admired peer group.

“Individuals feel indirect pressure to change their own behavior in order to conform to an admired peer group.”

• cites Crutchfield, 1955 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Individuals rely on their feelings in decision-making processes, often leading to accurate responses but sometimes not.

“Individuals rely on their feelings (mood, meta-cognition, emotion and body sensation) in decision-making processes, often leading to accurate responses but sometimes not.”

• cites Schwarz, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Users' participation in social networks consists of three phases: initial use, exploratory use and managed use.

“Users' participation in SNs consists of three phases: initial use, exploratory use and managed use.”

• cites Hu and Ma, 2010Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Decision-making in a mobile environment is subject to environmental and circumstantial factors different from those encountered during desktop computing.

“as decision-making in a mobile environment is subject to environmental and circumstantial factors different from those encountered during desktop computing”

May combine two claims.

There are two explanations for the privacy paradox: either individuals act on their intuitive concern without assessing the risks due to incomplete understanding of it, or high considered concern may be overridden by low considered concern.

“there are two explanations for the privacy paradox: Either individuals act on their intuitive concern without assessing the risks due to incomplete understanding of it (no considered concern takes place) or high considered concern may be overridden by low considered concern”

• cites Kahneman, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Decision-making is based on two systems: System I is fast and automatic but vulnerable to influences that inhibit the rational decision-making process, whereas System II is rational and responsible for reasoning.

“System I is fast and automatic but is vulnerable to influences that inhibit the rational decision-making process (produces intuitive concern for instance), whereas System II is rational and responsible for reasoning (produces considered concern, for instance).”

• cites Kahneman, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Behavior is a result of conscious choices with the purpose to maximize gain and minimize loss.

“Behavior is a result of conscious choices with the purpose to maximize gain and minimize loss.”

• cites Vroom, 1964Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Individuals have a tendency to underestimate the likelihood of experiencing adverse events.

“Individuals have a tendency to underestimate the likelihood of experiencing adverse events.”

• cites Irwin, 1953 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Privacy is a dynamic process of interaction regulation with others.

“Privacy is a dynamic process of interaction regulation with others.”

• cites Altman, 1975Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Public Value Theory partly explains the privacy paradox because people do not engage in protective behavior because they fail to value data protection adequately.

“This explains partly the privacy paradox as people do not engage in protective behavior because they fail to value data protection adequately.”

• cites Meynhardt, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Individuals do not process information in a rational way.

“Individuals do not process information in a rational way.”

• cites Kahneman and Tversky, 1979 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The intention to disclose personal information is based on a rational risk-benefit calculation as perceived benefits are weighed against risk probability.

“The intention to disclose personal information is based on a rational risk-benefit calculation as perceived benefits are weighed against risk probability.”

• cites Culnan and Armstrong, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source