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Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits
Abstract
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence-personality and intelligence-interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality-intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest-intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
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In the citing paper
“Openness-related traits are widely acknowledged correlates of cognitive abilities (17).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Second, investment of intelligence into acquired knowledge (i.e., invested abilities) was found to require a hungry mind (i.e., openness traits) and interest in the domain of knowledge to be acquired (17, 19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“A few meta-analyses have summarized available research (e.g., refs. 17–21).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Although considerable research has examined the correlates and consequences of cognitive abilities and personality traits independently, much less is known about their connections.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“This investment process underpins the emergence of knowledge acquisition trait complexes (17) and intellectual engagement (19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Thus, invested abilities displayed larger relations with openness traits, especially its intellect, non traditional,* need for cognition, and openness to ideas facets.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“First, cognitive abilities were moderately associated with a variety of openness-related traits (17, 19) but appeared to have weak relations with other personality characteristics (18).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In contrast to previous meta-analyses that reported mostly null effects for extraversion–abilities relations (17, 18), our larger dataset and more nuanced construct structures revealed previously unacknowledged relations.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Overall, these intellect-related traits’ relations were in line with previous meta-analytic estimates (17, 19) (mean ρ^ = .21, mean 95% CI [.13, .29])”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad [1997]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found generally positive relationships with extraversion across ten intelligence traits.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Results from a meta-analysis between personality and intelligence conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), however, found relatively consistent modest positive relations between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Their findings, shown in Table 2, indicate a positive relationship of the estimated effect sizes for extraversion across the ability categories ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“The pervasive decrease in the estimated effect sizes in the current study compared to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results provides initial support for this hypothesis.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Consistent with past research (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner and Matthews, 2000; Zeidner, 1995), all of the estimated effect sizes were close to zero.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“A closer comparison with the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results reveals that most of the estimated effect sizes from the current study are slightly smaller (compare Table 2 and Table 9).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Exclusion criteria were designed to retain studies useful in the present meta-analysis and consistent with the studies used in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis to avoid a selection confound.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“For example, about 27 additional studies (an average increase of 60%) were located beyond those located in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis for the three most studied ability-personality combinations (extraversion crossed with crystallized intelligence, general intelligence, and fluid intelligence).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Similar to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, the extraversion-intelligence relationship was slightly positive, and different patterns of relationships were found for social closeness and social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Almost universally, the estimated effects sizes in the current study were less than the estimated effect sizes in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, and almost universally, the correlations of the extraversion-intelligence association and date of publication for the ability-personality categories were negative.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., 2020).”
From The German O*NET Interest Profiler Short Form (2023) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“All tests of intelligence or cognitive aptitude are optimal performance assessments, whereas measures of thinking dispositions are often assessed under typical performance conditions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Norris & Ennis, 1989;Perkins, 1995;Sternberg, 2003;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Moreover, because Openness is positively correlated with a broad range of cognitive abilities, including vocabulary (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004), it is reasonable to suppose that highly Open individuals use “big words” more often, effectively resulting in strong positive correlations for many individual words (but conversely, producing negative correlations for”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
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“However, this contradicts Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) who found significant negative correlations between actual psychometric intelligence scores and Neuroticism.”
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“Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found positive links between Openness and intelligence, but Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic and Moutafi (2005) found negative links between intelligence and Conscientiousness.”
BackgroundA dynamic capabilities view of employability
Finch, D., Peacock, M., Levallet, N., & Foster, W. (2015) · Education + Training · doi:10.1108/et-02-2015-0013 · Cited by 130
Can personality factors predict intelligence?
Moutafi, J., Furnham, A. F., & Paltiel, L. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.06.023 · Cited by 117
Emotional experiences during test taking: Does cognitive ability make a difference?
Goetz, T., Preckel, F., Pekrun, R. H., & Hall, N. C. (2007) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2006.12.002 · Cited by 122
“Moreover, a meta-analytic review of empirical research suggests that cognitive abilities are positively correlated with control-related cognitions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), such as self-appraisals of one's own competencies (i.e., perceived competence).”
BackgroundA Framework for the Analysis of Student Well-Being in the PISA 2015 Study
Borgonovi, F., & Pál, J. (2016) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/5jlpszwghvvb-en · Cited by 147
Zeidner, M., & Shani-Zinovich, I. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.05.007 · Cited by 119
Integrating Implicit and Explicit Social Cognitions for Enhanced Personality Assessment
Bing, M. N., LeBreton, J. M., Davison, H. K., Migetz, D. Z., & James, L. R. (2007) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428107301148 · Cited by 114
“…described below, cognitive ability was controlled for because past research has demonstrated its importance in the prediction of effort and performance and its relationship with AM (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Hunter & Hunter, 1984; Lilienfeld et al., 2000; Maqsud, 1997; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998).”
MethodThe Relationship between Creativity and Intelligence
Kim, K. H., Cramond, B. L., & VanTassel‐Baska, J. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511763205.025 · Cited by 113
Interactions between intelligence and personality: results from two large samples
Austin, E. J., Hofer, S. M., Deary, I. J., & Eber, H. W. (2000) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00202-0 · Cited by 107
The Relation of Personality and Intelligence—What Can the Brunswik Symmetry Principle Tell Us?
Kretzschmar, A., Spengler, M., Schubert, A., Steinmayr, R., & Ziegler, M. D. (2018) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence6030030 · Cited by 112
“, Reference [41]) and sufficient in order to achieve stable correlations between personality and intelligence [76], it was still too small to achieve stable latent estimations for the personality measurement.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe Structure of Temperament and Personality Traits: A Developmental PerspectivePreprint
Shiner, R. L., & DeYoung, C. G. (2011) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 113
Jopp, D., & Hertzog, C. (2007) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.4.811 · Cited by 106
“As noted earlier, it is possible to view activities and beliefs as outcomes of cognition, given that beliefs may be the result of monitoring cognitive performance (e.g., Hertzog, Dixon, & Hultsch, 1990) and that different types of cognitive abilities may contribute to developing interests and activities in adolescence…”
BackgroundGraham, E. K., & Lachman, M. E. (2012) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr149 · Cited by 105
Fabio, A. D., & Palazzeschi, L. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.12.012 · Cited by 113
Lipnevich, A. A., Preckel, F., & Krumm, S. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.027 · Cited by 111
“Personality factors are only moderately correlated with fluid intelligence (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997) and therefore may have the potential to explain math achievement above and beyond individuals' cognitive ability.”
BackgroundPetrides, K. V., & McManus, I. C. (2004) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/1472-6920-4-18 · Cited by 105
Extending the Comprehensive Model of Educational Effectiveness by an Empirical Investigation
Kyriakidēs, L. (2005) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/09243450500113936 · Cited by 104
“In addition, Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) have suggested that individual difference variables such as personality, intelligence, and vocational interests can be used to explain not only variance in academic performance, but also the processes by which personality traits influence examination…”
BackgroundFactors Influencing Career Decision Making in Adolescents and Adults
Albion, M. J., & Fogarty, G. J. (2002) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072702010001006 · Cited by 104
“As interests and personality are conceptualized and measured in terms of typical performance, this new perspective has encouraged and enabled researchers such as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) to investigate the overlap between intelligence and personality, and between intelligence and interests.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialExtraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation
Wolf, M. B., & Ackerman, P. L. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.020 · Cited by 101
Self-citationConscientiousness and longevity: An examination of possible mediators.
Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Hurd, M. D., Mroczek, D. K., & Roberts, B. W. (2011) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023859 · Cited by 103
“Cognitive functioning is largely independent of conscientiousness (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997) with one striking, healthrelated exception.”
Proyer, R. T. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.02.003 · Cited by 111
Bartels, M., Wegen, F. V., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Carlier, M., Polderman, T. J. C., Hoekstra, R. A., & Boomsma, D. I. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.02.007 · Cited by 102
“Openness to experience tends to correlate highest with intelligence (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Aitken Harris, 2004; Chamorro-Premuzic, Moutafi, & Furnham, 2005; Moutafi, Furnham, & Crump, 2006) and is associated with a wide class of intellectually oriented traits, such as curiosity, creativity,…”
BackgroundA randomized‐response investigation of the education effect in attitudes towards foreigners
Ostapczuk, M., Musch, J., & Moshagen, M. (2008) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.588 · Cited by 102
Remotely Close Associations: Openness to Experience and Semantic Memory Structure
Christensen, A. P., Kenett, Y. N., Cotter, K. N., Beaty, R. E., & Silvia, P. J. (2018) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2157 · Cited by 106
“People higher in openness to experience are consistently found to have higher crystallized intelligence—the accumulation of knowledge over time, including language, information, and concepts of a specific culture (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; DeYoung et al., 2012; McGrew, 2009).”
BackgroundResultConnelly, B. S., Öneş, D. S., & Chernyshenko, O. S. (2013) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.830620 · Cited by 100
“Relatedly, Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) posited that personality, cognitive abilities, and interests develop interactively.”
BackgroundThe nature and relative importance of students' perceptions of the sources of test anxiety
Bonaccio, S., & Reeve, C. L. L. (2010) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.09.007 · Cited by 119
Ability and Trait Complex Predictors of Academic and Job Performance: A Person–Situation Approach
Kanfer, R., Wolf, M. B., Kantrowitz, T. M., & Ackerman, P. L. (2009) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00415.x · Cited by 104
Self-citationBarrick, M. R., & Parks, L. (2018) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012218-015028 · Cited by 99
The relationship between personality traits, subjectively-assessed and fluid intelligence
Chamorro‐Premuzic, T., Moutafi, J., & Furnham, A. F. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.018 · Cited by 100
“Even in meta-analysis, this personality factor is consistently shown to be moderately and significantly correlated with intelligence, particularly with its crystallized aspects (Gc) (r = .30 in Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe heritability of conscientiousness facets and their relationship to IQ and academic achievement
Michelle Luciano, A., Wainwright, M. A., Wright, M. J., & Martin, N. G. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.10.013 · Cited by 98
“The notion that conscientiousness and intelligence may be related is not new (e.g., Pearson, 1906), but the empirical evidence is conflicting, with support for positive and negative correlations between conscientiousness and measures of intelligence (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundFive-Factor Personality Dimensions, Mood States, and Cognitive Performance in Older Adults
Booth, J. E., Schinka, J. A., Brown, L. M., Mortimer, J. A., & Borenstein, A. R. (2006) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390590954209 · Cited by 98
“The meta-analysis of personality traits and cognitive abilities conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) revealed that personality features in the domain of neuroticism/negative emotion have negative correlations with fluid and crystallized abilities, while those in the domain of extraversion/positive emotion tend t…”
MethodThe Psychology of Personnel Selection
Chamorro‐Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. F. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511819308 · Cited by 106
Le, H., Robbins, S. B., & Westrick, P. A. (2014) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035998 · Cited by 115
Use of Personality Variables in Work Settings
Hough, L. M., & Furnham, A. F. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei1207 · Cited by 100
Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability
Stanek, K. C., & Ones, D. S. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2212794120 · Cited by 97
The Good Judge Revisited: Individual Differences in the Accuracy of Personality Judgments
Christiansen, N. D., Wolcott-Burnam, S., Janovics, J. E., Burns, G. N., & Quirk, S. W. (2005) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1802_2 · Cited by 94
“Traits related to the dimension of the FFM referred to as intellectance or Openness to Experience have been consistently related to measures of cognitive ability (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundBaker, T. J., & Bichsel, J. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.02.017 · Cited by 97
“These results support previous research on young adults finding Openness to be a stronger predictor of Gc than Gf (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Ashton et al., 2000; Bates & Shieles, 2003).”
BackgroundResultAssessing Teacher Effectiveness
Campbell, J., Kyriakides, L. E., Muijs, D., & Robinson, W. (2010) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203403709 · Cited by 98
Metadata
- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 219-245
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2093371949
- Semantic Scholar
- de9d16d02fc6cd75679a94f29181ba274bc8e3c5
- Cited by
- 1,829
- References
- 241
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- intelligence, personality, career interest, social characteristics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aspirations, Psychological, Career Choice, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Personality, Personality Development
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