Not all self‐affirmations were created equal: The cognitive and social benefits of affirming the intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) self
Abstract
Three studies investigated whether affirming the self intrinsically (vs. extrinsically) would reduce defensive concerns and improve cognitive and social functioning in evaluative contexts. Study 1 found that an intrinsic self-affirmation reduced self-handicapping and increased performance on a threatening serial subtraction task relative to an extrinsic self-affirmation. Study 2 replicated the effects of Study 1, showing that an intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) self-affirmation increased women's performance on a math test under conditions that arouse stereotype threat. A third study extended these findings to threatening social contexts. Focusing participants on intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) aspects of self reduced thoughts about social rejection prior to an evaluative social interaction. Discussion focused on the need for further investigation into the multifaceted nature of the self and self-esteem.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Self-affirmation appears to reduce stereotype threat among students in laboratory situations.
“Given the evidence that self-aYrmation appears to reduce stereotype threat among students in laboratory situations (Martens et al., 2006;Schimel et al., 2004)”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Schimel et al., 2004
Cites
The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01 · Cited by 34,210 · see citing works
(1969) · Cited by 18,340 · see citing works
An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199269464.003.0005 · Cited by 12,620 · see citing works
A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology.
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960) · Journal of Consulting Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0047358 · Cited by 8,686 · see citing works
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 8,181 · see citing works
Social psychology of intergroup relations
Tajfel, H. (1982) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245 · Cited by 7,949 · see citing works
Higgins, E. T. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.12.1280 · Cited by 6,775 · see citing works
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Steele, C. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613 · Cited by 6,770 · see citing works
Journal of social behavior and personality
(1986) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(86)90025-5 · Cited by 6,751 · see citing works
Attachment and Loss. Vol. I. Attachment.
Jones, N. B., & Bowlby, J. (1970) · Man · doi:10.2307/2798963 · Cited by 4,201 · see citing works
A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation.
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.218 · Cited by 3,752 · see citing works
The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self
Steele, C. M. (1988) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60229-4 · Cited by 3,697 · see citing works
Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance
Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1373 · Cited by 3,435 · see citing works
In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis.
Brewer, M. B. (1979) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307 · Cited by 3,411 · see citing works
Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.
Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5 · Cited by 2,378 · see citing works
TARGET ARTICLE: Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem
Kernis, M. H. (2003) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1401_01 · Cited by 1,683 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Although the socialization process eventually requires children to squash many activities that they find intrinsically satisfying, the more a child is given choices for action and is allowed to develop a sense of internal control during this period and beyond, the less the child’s sense of self-worth will become bogge…”
BackgroundResultCrocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.593 · Cited by 1,614 · see citing works
Why Do People Need Self-Esteem? A Theoretical and Empirical Review.
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Arndt, J., & Schimel, J. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435 · Cited by 1,367 · see citing works
Self-citationThe trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509 · Cited by 1,308 · see citing works
Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others.
Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.31 · Cited by 1,047 · see citing works
Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., Rosenblatt, A., Burling, J., Lyon, D., Simon, L., & Pinel, E. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.913 · Cited by 865 · see citing works
Dissonance processes as self-affirmation.
Steele, C. M., & Liu, T. J. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.1.5 · Cited by 785 · see citing works
(1995) · Cited by 745 · see citing works
Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance
Schmader, T. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1500 · Cited by 711 · see citing works
Sherman, D. A. K., Nelson, L. D., & Steele, C. M. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672002611003 · Cited by 660 · see citing works
The Psychology of the Social Self
(2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315805689 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
The truly false consensus effect: An ineradicable and egocentric bias in social perception.
Krueger, J. I., & Clement, R. W. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.596 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal.
Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J. L., & Ernst, J. M. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.63 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Efficacy, Agency, and Self-Esteem
Kernis, M. H. (1995) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1280-0_12 · Cited by 536 · see citing works
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C.-R., Berry, A. J., & al, E. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.6.1190 · Cited by 534 · see citing works
What's in a name: Implicit self-esteem and the automatic self.
Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.80.4.669 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
What's in a name: implicit self-esteem and the automatic self
Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.4.669 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
When exemplification fails: Hypocrisy and the motive for self-integrity.
Stone, J., Wiegand, A. W., Cooper, J., & Aronson, E. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.54 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Self-esteem and "if . . .then" contingencies of interpersonal acceptance.
Baldwin, M. W., & Sinclair, L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.71.6.1130 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
On the confluence of self processes
Tesser, A., & Cornell, D. P. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(91)90023-y · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Consequences of self-handicapping: Effects on coping, academic performance, and adjustment.
Zuckerman, M., Kieffer, S. C., & Knee, C. R. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1619 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Confluence of Self-Esteem Regulation Mechanisms: On Integrating the Self-Zoo
Tesser, A., Crepaz, N., Collins, J. C., Cornell, D. P., & Beach, S. R. H. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672002612003 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Beck, B. L., Koons, S. R., & Milgrim, D. L. (2000) · Journal of social behavior and personality · Cited by 185 · see citing works
The Interactive Roles Of Stability And Level Of Self-Esteem: Research and Theory
Kernis, M. H., & Waschull, S. B. (1995) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60404-9 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Self-esteem and "if…then" contingencies of interpersonal acceptance.
Baldwin, M. W., & Sinclair, L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1130 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Stability of Self‐Esteem: Assessment, Correlates, and Excuse Making
Kernis, M. H., Grannemann, B. D., & Barclay, L. C. (1992) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00923.x · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Schimel, J. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.19 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Self-citationSchimel, J., Arndt, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.35 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the spontaneity of trait attribution: Converging evidence for the role of cognitive strategy.
Bassili, J. N., & Smith, M. C. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.2.239 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Sedikides, C., & Green, J. D. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.4.30987 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Arndt, J., & Greenberg, J. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299259001 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Self-citationArndt, J., Schimel, J., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202288011 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Self-citationCoping With Stereotype Threat: Denial as an Impression Management Strategy.
von Hippel, W., von Hippel, C., Conway, L., Preacher, K. J., Schooler, J. W., & Radvansky, G. A. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.1.22 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
On the Plasticity of Self-Defense
Tesser, A. (2001) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00117 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Rank, O. (1996) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/bf02354948 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
DeHart, T., Pelham, B. W., & Murray, S. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.126.30986 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Evidence that Projection of a Feared Trait can Serve a Defensive Function
Schimel, J., Greenberg, J., & Martens, A. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203252969 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationKoole, S. L. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.100.30985 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Pelham, B. W., & Hetts, J. J. (2014) · doi:10.4324/9781315805689-12 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Schimel, J., Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., et al. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.446 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationSchimel, J., Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., et al. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.3.446 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationCOMMENTARIES on "Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem"
Neiss, M. B., Stevenson, J., & Sedikides, C. (2003) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1401_02 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory
Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38004-5 · Cited by 1,614 · see citing works
The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention
Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. K. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115137 · Cited by 1,197 · see citing works
Smart Richman, L., & Leary, M. R. (2009) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0015250 · Cited by 942 · see citing works
Nguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012702 · Cited by 845 · see citing works
Sherman, D. K., Hartson, K. A., Binning, K. R., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., Taborsky-Barba, S., Tomassetti, S., Nussbaum, A. D., & Cohen, G. L. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031495 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
Thine own self: True self-concept accessibility and meaning in life
Schlegel, R. J., Hicks, J. A., Arndt, J., & King, L. A. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014060 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Self-citationCook, J. E., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., & Cohen, G. L. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026312 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Affirmed yet unaware: Exploring the role of awareness in the process of self-affirmation.
Sherman, D. K., Cohen, G. L., Nelson, L. D., Nussbaum, A. D., Bunyan, D. P., & Garcia, J. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015451 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Remembering the real me: Nostalgia offers a window to the intrinsic self.
Baldwin, M., Biernat, M., & Landau, M. J. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038033 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
The true self and psychological health: emerging evidence and future directions
Schlegel, R. J., & Hicks, J. A. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00401.x · Cited by 148 · see citing works
The detrimental effects of a suggestion of sexism in an instruction situation
Adams, G., Garcia, D. M., Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Steele, C. M. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.10.004 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Arndt, J., Cox, C. R., Goldenberg, J. L., Vess, M., Routledge, C., Cooper, D. P., & Cohen, F. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015182 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Schimel, J., Arndt, J., Banko, K. M., & Cook, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Alberta (CA)
- University of Missouri (US)
- Venue
- Social Cognition
- Publisher
- Guilford Publications
- Published
- 2004-02
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 75-99
- ISSN
- 0278-016X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2107190688
- Cited by
- 127
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 4.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Social Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- self-affirmation, self-esteem, self-handicapping, stereotype threat, mathematics achievement, social rejection, evaluative context, cognitive performance, social functioning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
