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Cited by 1,916Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionEvolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorAnimal Behavior and Reproduction

Sex Differences in Aggression in Real-World Settings: A Meta-Analytic Review

Archer, John·2004·Review of General Psychology
DOI 10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291
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Abstract

Meta-analytic reviews of sex differences in aggression from real-world settings are described. They cover self-reports, observations, peer reports, and teacher reports of overall direct, physical, verbal, and indirect forms of aggression, as well as (for self-reports) trait anger. Findings are related to sexual selection theory and social role theory. Direct, especially physical, aggression was more common in males and females at all ages sampled, was consistent across cultures, and occurred from early childhood on, showing a peak between 20 and 30 years. Anger showed no sex differences. Higher female indirect aggression was limited to later childhood and adolescence and varied with method of measurement. The overall pattern indicated males’ greater use of costly methods of aggression rather than a threshold difference in anger.

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Crossref · 10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291

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  • Both the old analyses and the new analyses indicated that there are sex differences in Aggressive behavior toward others; there are higher levels for men in almost all types of aggression (e.g., physical, verbal; odds ratio = 2.68, SMDs = 0.29-0.62).

    “Both the old analyses and the new analyses indicated that there are sex differences in Aggressive behavior toward others; there are higher levels for men in almost all types of aggression (e.g., physical, verbal; odds ratio = 2.68, SMDs = 0.29–0.62; Archer, 2004; Card et al., 2008; Nivette et al., 2019).”

    From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Archer, 2004

  • In the new analyses for Aggressive behavior, sex differences seem to be larger in countries with higher living conditions for overall aggression, for which males score higher, and also for indirect aggression, for which females score higher or no difference can be found.

    “In the new analyses for Aggressive behavior, sex differences seem to be larger in countries with higher living conditions for overall aggression, for which males score higher, and also for indirect aggression, for which females score higher or no difference can be found (Archer, 2004; Card et al., 2008).”

    From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Archer, 2004

  • For negative emotions where females score higher, higher living conditions predict that females express and feel even more negative emotions such as guilt and crying compared with men.

    “For those cases in which there is an overall sex difference such that females score higher on Negative emotions, higher living conditions seem to predict that they express and feel even more negative emotions (e.g., guilt and crying) compared with men (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017; van Hemert et al., 2011”

    From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Archer, 2004

  • Women display higher levels of indirect aggression (SMD = 0.13) or a tendency toward higher levels (SMD = 0.072).

    “Women, on the other hand, display higher levels of indirect aggression (SMD = 0.13; Archer, 2004) or a tendency toward higher levels (SMD = 0.072; Card et al., 2008).”

    From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Archer, 2004

  • Some studies indicated no sex differences in negative emotions such as self-reported anger, negative emotion, and powerful emotions.

    “However, there were also studies that indicated no sex differences regarding Negative emotions (self-reported anger, negative emotion, powerful emotions; Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Fischer et al., 2004).”

    From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Archer, 2004

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Authors
Archer, J.
Affiliations
University of Lancashire (GB)
Corresponding author
Archer, John
ORCID
Archer, John
Venue
Review of General Psychology
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2004-12
Volume
8
Issue
4
Pages
291-322
ISSN
  • 1089-2680 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1552
DOI
10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291
OpenAlex
W2130417382
Cited by
1,916
References
2
Citations by year
2026: 78 · 2025: 70 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 142 · 2019: 126 · 2018: 118 · 2017: 127 · 2016: 111 · 2015: 124 · 2014: 103 · 2013: 110 · 2012: 99
FWCI
36.16
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Review of General Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • CLOK (University of Central Lancashire) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
Keywords
sex differences, aggression, direct aggression, physical aggression, verbal aggression, indirect aggression, trait anger, sexual selection theory, social role theory, cross-cultural consistency, age differences, self-report, peer reporting, teacher reports

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