Sex differences in cooperation: A meta-analytic review of social dilemmas.
Open accessAbstract
Although it is commonly believed that women are kinder and more cooperative than men, there is conflicting evidence for this assertion. Current theories of sex differences in social behavior suggest that it may be useful to examine in what situations men and women are likely to differ in cooperation. Here, we derive predictions from both sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives on context-specific sex differences in cooperation, and we conduct a unique meta-analytic study of 272 effect sizes-sampled across 50 years of research-on social dilemmas to examine several potential moderators. The overall average effect size is not statistically different from zero (d = -0.05), suggesting that men and women do not differ in their overall amounts of cooperation. However, the association between sex and cooperation is moderated by several key features of the social context: Male-male interactions are more cooperative than female-female interactions (d = 0.16), yet women cooperate more than men in mixed-sex interactions (d = -0.22). In repeated interactions, men are more cooperative than women. Women were more cooperative than men in larger groups and in more recent studies, but these differences disappeared after statistically controlling for several study characteristics. We discuss these results in the context of both sociocultural and evolutionary theories of sex differences, stress the need for an integrated biosocial approach, and outline directions for future research.
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In the new analyses, there are no associations between living conditions and sex differences in talkativeness or cooperation in social dilemmas.
“In the new analyses, there are, however, no associations between living conditions and sex differences in talkativeness or cooperation in social dilemmas (Balliet et al., 2011; Leaper & Ayres, 2007).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Balliet et al., 2011
Women are more likely to cooperate in mixed-sex interactions (SMD = 0.24).
“Women are more likely to cooperate in mixed-sex interactions (SMD = 0.24; Balliet et al., 2011).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Balliet et al., 2011
Regarding Social interactions, men display higher levels of talkativeness (SMD = 0.21), negotiating performance (SMD = 0.15), and cooperation for same-sex interactions in social dilemmas (SMD = 0.17).
“Regarding Social interactions, men display higher levels of talkativeness (SMD = 0.21; Leaper & Ayres, 2007), negotiating performance (SMD = 0.15; Shan et al., 2019), and cooperation for same-sex interactions in social dilemmas (SMD = 0.17; Balliet et al., 2011).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Balliet et al., 2011
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- Authors
- Balliet, D., Li, N. P., Macfarlan, S. J., & Van Vugt, M.
- Affiliations
- Singapore Management University (SG)
- Oregon State University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2011-11
- Volume
- 137
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 881-909
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2139079404
- Cited by
- 349
- References
- 413
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 38.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- research.vu.nl
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Singapore Management University Institutional Knowledge (InK) (Singapore Management University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Singapore Management University Institutional Knowledge (InK) (Singapore Management University) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Academic REpository of VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- sex differences, cooperation, social dilemmas, evolutionary psychology, sociocultural theory, biosocial approach, repeated interaction, group size
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cooperative Behavior, Culture, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Biological Evolution, Female, Game Theory, Gender Identity, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Men, Psychology, Social, Research, Sex Characteristics, Sex Factors, Social Behavior, Social Change, Social Environment, Women
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