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Mind over milkshakes: Mindsets, not just nutrients, determine ghrelin response.
Abstract
Objective To test whether physiological satiation as measured by the gut peptide ghrelin may vary depending on the mindset in which one approaches consumption of food. Methods On 2 separate occasions, participants (n = 46) consumed a 380-calorie milkshake under the pretense that it was either a 620-calorie "indulgent" shake or a 140-calorie "sensible" shake. Ghrelin was measured via intravenous blood samples at 3 time points: baseline (20 min), anticipatory (60 min), and postconsumption (90 min). During the first interval (between 20 and 60 min) participants were asked to view and rate the (misleading) label of the shake. During the second interval (between 60 and 90 min) participants were asked to drink and rate the milkshake. Results The mindset of indulgence produced a dramatically steeper decline in ghrelin after consuming the shake, whereas the mindset of sensibility produced a relatively flat ghrelin response. Participants' satiety was consistent with what they believed they were consuming rather than the actual nutritional value of what they consumed. Conclusions The effect of food consumption on ghrelin may be psychologically mediated, and mindset meaningfully affects physiological responses to food.
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“Early work in this area demonstrated negative impacts on taste, satiety, and preference when unhealthy or ambiguously healthy foods (e.g., crackers, cookies) were labeled as healthy as opposed to unhealthy, tasty, or neutral (Crum et al., 2011; Finkelstein & Fishbach, 2010; Lähteenmäki et al., 2010; Raghunathan et al., 2006; Suher et al., 2016; Wansink & Chandon, 2006; Wardle & Huon, 2000).”
From Increasing Vegetable Intake by Emphasizing Tasty and Enjoyable Attributes: A Randomized Controlled Multisite Intervention for Taste-Focused Labeling (2019) · cites this paper as Crum et al., 2011
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Self-citationBrain Mechanisms of the Placebo Effect: An Affective Appraisal Account
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“environments by changing the way an individual construes healthy foods in general (Crum and Zuckerman, 2017; Crum et al., 2011), a benefit over choice architecture approaches that capitalize on mindless decisions and defaults (Thaler and Sunstein, 2008; Walton and Wilson, 2018).”
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“They also affect the function of the peripheral nervous system and its downstream target organs and modulate the activity of the immune and endocrine systems (Crum et al., 2011; Pollo et al., 2003).”
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Hadamitzky, M., Lückemann, L., Pacheco‐López, G., & Schedlowski, M. (2019) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00033.2018 · Cited by 89
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“…of a milkshake that was labeled as “indulgent” and therefore perceived as high in calories, this triggered a stronger anticipatory rise in the gut peptide ghrelin compared with when the identical milkshake is labeled “sensible,” reflecting increased appetite and readiness to eat (Crum et al. 2011).”
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“Likewise, ingestion of a product labelled as 65 indulgent produced a steeper decline in the hunger‐hormone ghrelin than when labels 66 suggested a low calorie milkshake((11)).”
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McKay, B., Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00008 · Cited by 42
“In addition to identifying an additional factor – generic expectancy for performance under challenge – that may influence motor performance, these findings contribute to insights that alteration of mindsets, beliefs, or expectations can influence outcomes beyond health-related behavior (Crum and Langer, 2007) or physi…”
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“It influences our “everyday” behaviors and actions (Senge, 1990), our ability to learn (Dweck, 2006), and has a cascading, self-fulfilling effect on reality (Crum et al., 2011; Crum & Langer, 2007).”
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“For example, the expectation that an activity leads to a decrease in weight may result in an actual reduction of weight (4), and perceptions also change physiological responses to food consumption (5).”
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“the evidence for their influence on food intake at normal physiological levels less clear.(152) An important aspect to consider is that subjective appetite ratings do not provide the full spectrum of either appetite”
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“Future work is needed to determine the generalizability of these findings to mindset manipulations outside the domain of stress, such as mindsets about the nature of intelligence as fixed or malleable [51], mindsets about healthy eating as indulgent or depriving [52, 53], or mindsets about willpower as limited or nonl…”
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“…expected satiety is important in relation to actual short-term eating behaviour when we consider the effect of expectations on eating behaviour mediators such as ghrelin response, which has been demonstrated to be significantly lower if the preload is assumed to be caloric (Crum et al., 2011).”
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“Moreover, Crum and colleagues (Crum et al., 2011) demonstrated that the decrease of ghrelin levels after food consumption was larger in magnitude in participants who thought that they had consumed a high caloric shake in comparison to the participants who thought that the shake was low caloric (in reality it was the s…”
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Crum, A. J., & Phillips, D. J. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0296 · Cited by 28
“Furthermore, individuals who thought they were drinking an indulgent, high-calorie milkshake showed steeper declines in ghrelin, a hunger-inducing hormone, than when they thought that the same shake was a sensible, low-calorie milkshake (Crum et al., 2011).”
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“…energy for fueling this fight are related (Achat et al. 2000; Schröder, Schwarzer, and Konertz 1998) and are both positively associated with recovery, echoing the inextricable link between physiological and psychological states (Crum et al. 2011; Crum, Salovey, and Achor 2013; Taylor et al. 1992).”
BackgroundUnsolved, Forgotten, and Ignored Features of the Placebo Response in Medicine
Enck, P., Klosterhalfen, S., & Weimer, K. (2016) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2016.11.016 · Cited by 51
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Yeomans, M. R., Re, R., Wickham, M. S. J., Lundholm, H., & Chambers, L. C. (2016) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2016.112 · Cited by 34
Differences in gastrointestinal hormones and appetite ratings among obesity classes
Aukan, M. I., Nymo, S., Ollestad, K. H., Boyesen, G. A., DeBenedictis, J. N., Rehfeld, J. F., Coutinho, S. R., & Martins, C. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.105940 · Cited by 28
The Positive Impact of Push vs Pull Progress Feedback
Cauchard, J. R., Frey, J., Zahrt, O. H., Johnson, K., Crum, A. J., & Landay, J. A. (2019) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3351234 · Cited by 28
“…from the psychological and medical sciences is accumulating to suggest that health and longevity outcomes depend not only on actual health-related behavior (e.g., number of steps in a day), but also on individuals’ perceptions (or mindsets) about their health and behavior [15, 16, 18, 33, 66].”
BackgroundSelf-citationLee, I., Kullmann, S., Scheffler, K., Preissl, H. T., & Enck, P. (2018) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqy077 · Cited by 25
Top-down expectation effects of food labels on motivation
Wegman, J., van Loon, I., Smeets, P. A. M., Cools, R., & Aarts, E. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.02.011 · Cited by 29
“Interestingly, the top-down in fl uences of food labels impacts explicit motivation in children (Enax et al., 2015) and can even act on low levels in the gut-brain axis, such as secretion of the gut peptide ghrelin, which signals hunger state to the brain (Crum et al., 2011).”
Egan, P. M., Clarkson, J. J., & Hirt, E. R. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.11.006 · Cited by 26
“, 2008), and overlap considerably with other research suggesting that restorative expectancies mobilize perceptual changes predictive of corresponding restoration (Aslaksen & Flaten, 2008; Crum & Langer, 2007; Crum et al., 2011; Draganich & Erdal, 2014).”
ResultNeuroendocrine Peptides of the Gut and Their Role in the Regulation of Food Intake
Schalla, M. A., Taché, Y., & Stengel, A. (2021) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c200007 · Cited by 28
Don’t Take It Personally? The Role of Personal Relevance in Conceptual Change
Gill, M. G., Trevors, G., Greene, J. A., & Algina, J. J. (2020) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2020.1754152 · Cited by 30
“…or egg” debate about whether it is more effective to first target beliefs or practices, research is clear that changing beliefs is one way to change behavior, as numerous studies in a variety of fields have shown (Crum et al., 2011; Yeager et al., 2016; for a review, see Buehl & Beck, 2015).”
BackgroundThe Relationship between Perceptions and Objective Measures of Greenness
Hart, J. L., Yeager, R. A., Riggs, D. W., Fleischer, D., Owolabi, U., Walker, K. L., Bhatnagar, A., & Keith, R. J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192316317 · Cited by 24
“Previous work has shown that perceptions can be closely tied to health outcomes [40,41,43,64].”
BackgroundHow we decide what to eat: Toward an interdisciplinary model of gut–brain interactions
Plaßmann, H., Schelski, D. S., Simon, M., & Koban, L. (2021) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1562 · Cited by 31
“sensible) of a consumed food affect ghrelin levels (Crum et al., 2011).”
BackgroundVéliz, C., Maslen, H., Essman, M., Taillie, L. S., & Savulescu, J. (2019) · The Hastings Center Report · doi:10.1002/hast.1067 · Cited by 41
“For example, the expectation of drinking an “indulgent” versus a “sensible” shake differentially affects the release of the hunger-regulating hormone ghrelin.(28)”
BackgroundHoffmann, V. S., Lanz, M., Mackert, J., Müller, T. D., Tschöp, M. H., & Meißner, K. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00706 · Cited by 26
“Crum and colleagues went one step further and evaluated the impact of expectations on plasma levels of the gut hormone ghrelin, a physiological marker of appetite (7).”
BackgroundProviding Choice in Exercise Influences Food Intake at the Subsequent Meal
Beer, N. J., Dimmock, J. A., Jackson, B., & Guelfi, K. J. (2017) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001330 · Cited by 25
“Furthermore, researchers are encouraged to investigate whether autonomy in exercise influences the physiological regulation of appetite, given preliminary evidence in the literature to suggest that the circulating concentrations of appetiteregulating peptides may be altered by psychological mindset alone (5).”
Context-dependency in valuation
Tymula, A. A., & Plaßmann, H. (2016) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2016.06.015 · Cited by 30
Placebo effects in obesity research
Fontaine, K. R., Williams, M. S., Hoenemeyer, T. W., Kaptchuk, T. J., & Dutton, G. R. (2016) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.21456 · Cited by 25
Neural correlates of taste perception in congenital blindness
Gagnon, L., Kupers, R. C., & Ptito, M. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.027 · Cited by 19
“Through learning, vision powerfully sharpens our expectations about a food and prepares the body to respond accordingly (Feldman and Richardson, 1986; Powley, 2000; Crum et al., 2011).”
BackgroundPlacebo Effects on Visual Food Cue Reactivity: An Eye-Tracking Investigation
Potthoff, J., Jurinec, N., & Schienle, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00525 · Cited by 21
“(20, 21)] or with patients suffering from eating disorders [e.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Crum, A. J., Corbin, W. R., Brownell, K. D., & Salovey, P.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- Venue
- Health Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 424-429
- ISSN
- 0278-6133 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-7810
- OpenAlex
- W2092456099
- Cited by
- 278
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 5.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2011-07-11)
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Rudd Foundation
- Yale Center for Clinical Investigation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Keywords
- ghrelin, mindset, food labeling, satiety, milkshakes
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Eating, Humans, Satiation, Ghrelin, Young Adult
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