Cited by 728Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

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A stimulus-response analysis of anxiety and its role as a reinforcing agent.

Mowrer, O. H.·1939·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/h0054288

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The Principles of Psychology
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“…trajectories, comorbidity, psychopathology and defense mechanisms (Freud, 1937/1966), on the one hand, and operant and classical conditioning (Mowrer, 1939; Skinner, 1957; Wolpe, 1969), on the other, were thought to account for disorders ranging from phobias and depression to schizophrenia.”
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“The basic behavioral principles behind hypothesis testing of irrational beliefs are consistent with the dual processing theory of avoidance (Miller, 1992; Mowrer, 1939; Rescorla & Solomon, 1967).”
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“…many of the other fear assessment procedures, such as the various forms of avoidance conditioning, crucially involve an initial phase of fear conditioning that then provides motivational impetus for the later stages of instrumental avoidance learning (e.g., Mowrer 1939; Dollard and Miller 1950).”
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Learning theory and the symbolic processes.
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“To quote Mowrer (1939) : The position here taken is that human beings (and also other living organ[ism]s to varying degrees) can be motivated either by organic pressures (needs) that are currently present and felt or by the mere anticipation of such pressures and that THE STUDY OF AVOIDANCE S3…”
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“In the source of fear conditioning theory, "anxiety" was initially used instead of "fear" [42], and scholars did not distinguish between them [39,40].”
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“As a result, early models of fear acquisition (e.g., Mowrer, 1939; Seligman, 1971; Watson, 1924, Watson & Rayner, 1920) were revised to include the Clin Psychol Rev. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009 February 1.”
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Associative learning deficits increase symptoms of anxiety in humans
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Species-Specific Defense Reactions
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Articulated thoughts during simulated situations: A paradigm for studying cognition in emotion and behavior
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Counseling theory and practice.
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Behavioral Measurement of Conditioned Fear11This chapter was completed in February, 1969, while the authors were at Syracuse University.
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“From the beginning, Mowrer was interested in avoidance learning in animals as a tool for understanding pathological human anxiety [63].”
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STIMULI INEVITABLY GENERATED BY BEHAVIOR THAT AVOIDS ELECTRIC SHOCK ARE INHERENTLY REINFORCING
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“Following in the footsteps of Mowrer (1939) and Miller (1948), many authors have postulated a construct known as fear or anxiety.”
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Know safety, no fear
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Anxiety-reduction and learning.
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An experimental analogue of fear from a sense of helplessness.
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Onset of Panic Disorder With Agoraphobia
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Two-factor learning theory reconsidered, with special reference to secondary reinforcement and the concept of habit.
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Exposure and response prevention for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A review and new directions
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“Mowrer’s[9] two-factor theory of fear and avoidance”
Psychotherapy as a problem in learning theory.
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Control theory and psychopathology: an integrative approach.
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Characteristics of a conditioned response in human subjects during extinction trials following a single traumatic conditioning trial.
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Behavior Therapy with Obsessive-Compulsives
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“Pavlovian fear conditioning has been considered as an important experimental model for the etiology of anxiety disorders for at least 80 years (Mowrer, 1939; Watson & Rayner, 1920).”
Background
Safety behaviour does not necessarily interfere with exposure therapy
Milosevic, I., & Radomsky, A. S. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.011 · Cited by 128
The three-systems-model of fear and emotion—A critical examination
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The Use of Virtual Reality in Acrophobia Research and Treatment
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Myths and Rituals: A General Theory
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Long-Lasting Incubation of Conditioned Fear in Rats
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Pathways towards the proliferation of avoidance in anxiety and implications for treatment
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“The term escape referred specifically to an action that terminated an actual aversive event (an unconditional stimulus, US) following its onset (Lovibond, 2006; Mowrer, 1939).”
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A review of the relationship between panic and avoidance
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Theories of dual diagnosis in mental retardation.
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The Avoidance Learning Problem
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The history and present status of the law of effect.
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The role of fear in the motivation and acquisition of responses.
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Sadness, Depression, and Avoidance Behavior
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“Mowrer described the “neurotic paradox,” theorizing that the stability of dysfunctional behaviors with no apparent positive consequences resulted from conditioned avoidance behavior (Mowrer, 1939, 1947).”
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Instrumental conditioning of autonomically mediated responses in human beings.
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Orienting in classical conditioning and generalization of the galvanic skin response to words: An overview.
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Preparatory set (expectancy) - some methods of measurement.
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Self-citation
Ansiedad, angustia y estrés: tres conceptos a diferenciar
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Some Effects of Noncontingent Aversive Stimulation
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Does escape behavior strengthen agoraphobic avoidance? A replication
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Psychological responses to cancer recurrence
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“An alternative conceptualization considers principles of learning.(22,23) Habituation, for example, would predict that responses to cancer recurrence may be difficult, but less so than those experienced at the initial diagnosis, and certainly not worse.”
Background
Treatments that weaken Pavlovian conditioned fear and thwart its renewal in rats: Implications for treating human phobias.
Rauhut, A. S., Thomas, B. L., & Ayres, J. J. B. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.27.2.99 · Cited by 109
Acquisition of blood and dental phobia and anxiety response patterns in clinical patients
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Aging and negative affect: The rise and fall and rise of anxiety and depression symptoms.
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“Of interest, on the basis of known predictors of negative affect, such as interpersonal loss (Klerman, Weissman, Rounseville, & Chevron, 1984) and behavioral withdrawal and avoidance (Mowrer, 1939), one might theoretically expect late life to be associated with an increase in these risk factors.”
Background
The study of active avoidance: a platform for discussion
Diehl, M. M., Bravo-Rivera, C., & Quirk, G. J. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.010 · Cited by 95

Authors: Mowrer, O. H.
Corresponding author: Mowrer, O. H.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1939-11
Volume: 46
Issue: 6
Pages: 553-565
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/h0054288
OpenAlex: W2155754133
Cited by: 728
References: 8
Citations by year: 2026: 8 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 51
FWCI: 6.34
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: anxiety, reinforcement, operant conditioning

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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A stimulus-response analysis of anxiety and its role as a reinforcing agent.

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

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Metadata

Record

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