Cited by 890Sport Psychology and PerformancePsychology and Mental HealthPhysical education and sports games research

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They saw a game: A case study

Hastorf, Albert H., Cantril, Hadley·1954·The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/h0057880

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“Hastorf and Cantril (1954) decided to interview students who saw the game, as well as a sample of those who viewed the game on film, and to ask them how they would characterize the game: was it fair?”
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Kahan, D. M. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2216469 · Cited by 71
“…of the correctness of certain disputed officiating calls made in a game between their schools’ respective football teams: the emotional stake the students had in experiencing solidarity with their peers had unconsciously affected what they saw in viewing a film of the game (Hastorf & Cantril 1954).”
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Wann, D. L. L., Koch, K., Knoth, T., Fox, D., Aljubaily, H., & Lantz, C. D. (2006) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395537 · Cited by 62
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“…to view their friends, sports teams, spouses, countries, and fellow group members in highly positive terms and often engaging in the same kinds of selfdeceptive strategies to preserve their positive evaluations of them (e.g., Brown, 1986; Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Murray, Holmes, & Griffin, 1996).”
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The role of the medial prefrontal cortex in social categorization.
Molenberghs, P., & Morrison, S. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss135 · Cited by 57
“…associated with group membership, such difference in neural processing could be a result of evolution, in which our brains have developed to perceive the in-group and out-group differently (Hastorf and Cantril, 1954; Brewer and Caporael, 1990; Tobena et al., 1999; von Hippel and Trivers, 2011).”
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Peoples under threat: Americans, Arabs, and Israelis.
Pettigrew, T. F. (2003) · Peace and Conflict Journal of Peace Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327949pac0901_03 · Cited by 62
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Mann, L. (1974) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049537408254634 · Cited by 59
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Ross, M., & DiTecco, D. (1975) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1975.tb00998.x · Cited by 58
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Brown, N. D., & Jacoby-Senghor, D. S. (2021) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000372 · Cited by 58
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Kray, L. J., & Haselhuhn, M. P. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.04.006 · Cited by 59
“Since Hastorf and Cantril's (1954) seminal study of divergent recollections of a football game among rival spectators, egocentrism's role in shaping social perception has been apparent. Dartmouth students seemed to have witnessed a different game than Harvard students. Recollections of key plays and perceptions of spo…”
Background
Probability Judgment across Cultures
Yates, J. F., Lee, J., Sieck, W. R., Choi, I., & Price, P. C. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.017 · Cited by 55
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Schwalbe, M. C., Cohen, G. L., & Ross, L. D. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1912301117 · Cited by 54
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“In a classic study from the 1950s, students from two different Ivy League schools were asked to evaluate controversial calls made by an official during a football game; the students evaluated the legitimacy of the calls in a manner that was favorable to their institution, despite claims that their evaluations were neu…”
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Perceptions of Purple: Counterfactual and Hindsight Judgments at Northwestern Wildcats Football Games
Roese, N. J., & Maniar, S. D. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672972312002 · Cited by 55
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“According to the logic behind this measure, different people should encode these scenarios in different ways ( Hastorf & Cantril, 1954 ).”
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Ingroup Favoritism in Umpiring Decisions in Australian Football
Mohr, P. B., & Larsen, K. (1998) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224549809600403 · Cited by 53
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Lay Judgments of Judicial Decision Making
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“This perception of relatively hostile news content (e.g., Hastorf & Cantril, 1954) leads to ideas that coverage will be perceived to be less favorable to one’s own position, relative to the coverage of the other position.”
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Clinical versus Actuarial Judgment
Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., & Meehl, P. E. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.042 · Cited by 53
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Hillman, J. G., Fowlie, D. I., & MacDonald, T. K. (2022) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683221138384 · Cited by 63
“Biases in individuals’ subjective realities can lead to situations where two different individuals perceive the same stimuli but give divergent accounts of what was real (e.g., Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Vallone et al., 1985).”
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Allen, M. S., Robson, D. A., Martin, L. J., & Laborde, S. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167219893995 · Cited by 51
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Prentice, R. A. (2007) · Financial Analysts Journal · doi:10.2469/faj.v63.n6.4923 · Cited by 48
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“This hypothetical effect may partially explain, for example, partisan bias in the interpretation of events (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Ross, 1995; Vallone, Ross, & Lepper, 1985).”
Background
Like Goes with Like: The Role of Representativeness in Erroneous and Pseudo-Scientific Beliefs
Gilovich, T. D., & Savitsky, K. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.036 · Cited by 50
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Green, J. D., & Sedikides, C. (2001) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1010611922816 · Cited by 44
“Moving back to the empirical arena, the point that ambiguity is the norm in the social environment was made loud and clear approximately 50 years ago through the classic Hastorf and Cantril (1954) experiment and the Bruner (1951) review.”
Background
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Lieberman, M. D. (2005) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.028 · Cited by 46
“We see reckless people, not people that we have decided are reckless (Hastorf and Cantril, 1954).”
Background
The Credible Brand Model: The Effects of Ideological Congruency and Customer-Based Brand Equity on News Credibility
Oyedeji, T. A. (2010) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764210376312 · Cited by 44
“The role of audiences’ worldview in their perception of media messages and media outlets has been studied across mass communication, political science, and social psychology literatures (Gunther, 1992; Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Hinich & Munger, 1994; Lyons & Scheb, 1992).”
Background
Communicating & Relating
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“Studies have also considered fans use of counterfactual thinking and hindsight judgments (Roese and Maniar, 1997), and how biased processing affects their interpretation of game information (Hastorf and Cantril, 1954; Madrigal, 2008; Wann and Schrader, 2000).”
Background
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Heine, S. J. (2003) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022103256481 · Cited by 44
“Building on the classic American studies by Hastorf and Cantril (1954) and Cialdini et al. (1976), they investigated whether Japanese would show the same kind of intergroup bias while watching their school’s football team play against a rival.”
Background
Remarks on Support Theory: Recent Advances and Future Directions
Brenner, L. A., Koehler, D. J., & Rottenstreich, Y. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.029 · Cited by 45
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Greenberg, J., & Rosenfield, D. (1979) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1979.tb00214.x · Cited by 44
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“Attitudes have been shown to bias the construal of objects and events (e.g., Fazio & Williams, 1986; Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Lord, Ross, & Lepper, 1979).”
Background
Diverse According to Whom? Racial Group Membership and Concerns about Discrimination Shape Diversity Judgments
Bauman, C. W., Trawalter, S., & Unzueta, M. M. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214543881 · Cited by 39
“…can create perceptual differences in a variety of seemingly objective judgments about aspects of situations ranging from the amount of rough play in football games (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954) to the needs of survivors following natural disasters (Sommers, Apfelbaum, Dukes, Toosi, & Wang, 2006).”
Background
Branding in an Era of Retailer Dominance
de Chernatony, L. (1989) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.1989.11107109 · Cited by 43
Cooperation, association, and contest
Lüschen, G. (1970) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/002200277001400103 · Cited by 42
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Kahan, D. M. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2562025 · Cited by 42
“Students from rival colleges, for example, can be expected to form opposing perceptions when viewing a film of a disputed officiating call in a football game between their schools, consistent with their stake in experiencing emotional solidarity with their peers [Hastorf and Cantril, 1954].”
Background
“My Name is Alexa. What’s Your Name?” The Impact of Reciprocal Self-Disclosure on Post-Interaction Trust in Conversational Agents
Saffarizadeh, K., University of Texas at Arlington, Keil, M., Georgia State University, Boodraj, M., Boise State University, Alashoor, T., & University of Navarra (2024) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1jais.00839 · Cited by 41
The case for partisan motivated reasoning
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“…when they support their ingroup (Claassen & Ensley, 2016; Kopko, et al., 2011); they interpret events in ways favourable to their ingroup (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954 ; Kahan, et al., 2012; Stanovich & West, 2007); and they selectively learn and recall facts favourable to their ingroup (Frenda, et…”
Background
Toward a General Framework of Biased Reasoning: Coherence-Based Reasoning
Simon, D., & Read, S. J. (2023) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231204579 · Cited by 47
“The classic study by Hastorf and Cantril (1954) demonstrated that belonging to a college community resulted in polarized distortions of a contested football game: which activities on the field amounted to rule breaking, how severe were those violations, who was to blame for the fracas, and how…”
Toward a Relational Humanism
Gergen, K. J. (2015) · The Journal of Humanistic Counseling · doi:10.1002/johc.12009 · Cited by 41
“In this light, consider the classic research in social psychology in which psychologists (Hastorf & Cantrill 1954) focused on students’ perceptions of a football game between Princeton and Dartmouth.”
Background
One Field, Many Perspectives: Building the Foundations for Dialogue
Hermann, M. G. (1998) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00099 · Cited by 41
Attitude accessibility as a determinant of object construal and evaluation
Young, A. I., & Fázio, R. H. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.12.009 · Cited by 40
“Studies have found, for example, that needs (e.g., hunger: Radel & Clément-Guillotin, 2012; or poverty: Bruner & Goodman, 1947) and desires (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954) can lead to very different construals of the exact same object or event.”
Background
Perceived Injustice and Sports Violence
Mark, M. M., Bryant, F. B., & Lehman, D. R. (1983) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-5530-7_6 · Cited by 43
One Nation, Two Realities
Marietta, M., & Barker, D. C. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190677176.001.0001 · Cited by 103
Forming beliefs about adjudicated outcomes: Perceptions of risk and reservation values
Babcock, L. C., Farber, H. S., Fobian, C. S., & Shafir, E. B. (1995) · International Review of Law and Economics · doi:10.1016/0144-8188(95)00017-3 · Cited by 34
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Stillman, P. E., Fujita, K., Sheldon, O. J., & Trope, Y. (2018) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.05.004 · Cited by 40
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“Moreover, as combined instrumental and psychological interests increase, so will the tendency to subjectively interpret situations in biased ways that favor themselves and their organizations and to adopt consensual thinking (i.e., norms) regarding behaviours (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954).”
Background
Mass Media and the Spiral of Silence: The Philippines from Marcos to Aquino
González, H. (1988) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1988.tb02068.x · Cited by 38
Who Decides What Is Acceptable Speech on Campus? Why Restricting Free Speech Is Not the Answer
Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2018) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691618767324 · Cited by 38
“Research with adults has revealed that they •• exhibit selective perception, in which witnesses perceive the same event differently (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954); •• rate the quality of in-group members’ arguments more positively and adopt more extreme positions (E.-J. Lee, 2007); •• overestimate the…”
BackgroundInfluential
Taking Close Others’ Environmental Behavior Into Account When Striking the Moral Balance? Evidence for Vicarious Licensing, Not for Vicarious Cleansing
Meijers, M. H. C., Noordewier, M. K., Verlegh, P. W. J., Zebregs, S., & Smit, E. G. (2018) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916518773148 · Cited by 37
“This absence of vicarious cleansing seems to be in line with the body of research documenting people’s tendency to be self-serving (Finch & Cialdini, 1989; Gino & Galinsky, 2012; Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Kunda, 1987; Sanitioso, Kunda, & Fong, 1990).”
Result
Speaking Out of Both Sides of Their Mouths
Crawford, J. T., Kay, S. A., & Duke, K. E. (2015) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550614566858 · Cited by 40
“…ideology, motivated reasoning, between-subjects design, within-subjects design People often see what they want to see (Dunning & Balcetis, 2013; Hastorf & Cantril, 1954) and judge belief-congruent information more favorably than belief-incongruent information (Ditto & Lopez, 1992; Taber &…”
Background
Understanding Self-Control as a Whole vs. Part Dynamic
Fujita, K., Carnevale, J. J., & Trope, Y. (2016) · Neuroethics · doi:10.1007/s12152-016-9250-2 · Cited by 37
“For example, a football fan may perceive his team’s play as a “hard hit” while a fan of the opposing team may construe the same maneuver as a “dirty play” [49].”
Background
The polarized mind in context: Interdisciplinary approaches to the psychology of political polarization.
van Baar, J. M., & FeldmanHall, O. (2022) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000814 · Cited by 38
“Imagine if we reran the Dartmouth-Princeton football experiment (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954) to test which psychological processing step was most crucial in driving the supporters’ biased judgments of the violence on the field.”
BackgroundMethod
The Hot Hand in Basketball: On the Misperception of Random Sequences
Gilovich, T. D., Vallone, R. P., & Tversky, A. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.035 · Cited by 39
Fandom Biases Retrospective Judgments Not Perception
Huff, M., Papenmeier, F., Maurer, A. E., Meitz, T. G. K., Garsoffky, B., & Schwan, S. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep43083 · Cited by 36
Evaluating Ventures Fast and Slow: Sensemaking, Intuition, and Deliberation in Entrepreneurial Resource Provision Decisions
Fisher, G., & Neubert, E. (2022) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1177/10422587221093291 · Cited by 43
“This is commonly referred to as motivated reasoning,which is an unconscious tendency to seek out and then process information in a manner that suits an end goal extrinsic to the formation of accurate beliefs (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954).”
Background
Rates of False-Positive Classification Resulting From the Analysis of Additional Embedded Performance Validity Measures
Eglit, G. M. L., Stenclik, J. H., Miele, A. S., Lynch, J. K., & McCaffrey, R. J. (2015) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2014.938809 · Cited by 36
Reflections on Communication and Sport
Wanta, W. (2013) · Communication & Sport · doi:10.1177/2167479512471334 · Cited by 35
“Further, the source of the sports story also mattered—whether the sports story was in the newspaper of the hometown of a university, in the newspaper of the city of the cross-state rival’s university, or in a newspaper in a neutral site. by Hastrof and Cantril (1954).”
Background
Spontaneous Goal Inference (SGI)
Moskowitz, G. B., & Ökten, I. O. (2016) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12232 · Cited by 38
The Impact of Culture and Identity on Emotional Reactions to Insults
Maitner, A. T., Mackie, D. M., Pauketat, J. V. T., & Smith, E. R. (2017) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022117701194 · Cited by 35
“…& Smith, 2015; Mackie, Smith, & Ray, 2008; Smith, 1993) argues that when a specific group membership is made salient, individuals perceive events through a group lens, assessing the goals, motives, and resources the group has in relation to a given social context (e.g., Hastorf & Cantril, 1954).”
Background
Illusory correlations in graphological inference.
King, R. N., & Koehler, D. J. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037//1076-898x.6.4.336 · Cited by 35
Press and popular culture
Curran, J., & Sparks, C. (1991) · Media Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/016344391013002006 · Cited by 33
Implications of output-bound measures for laboratory and field research in memory
Fisher, R. P. (1996) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00042229 · Cited by 33
A Negativity Bias in Reframing Shapes Political Preferences Even in Partisan Contexts
Boydstun, A. E., Ledgerwood, A., & Sparks, J. (2019) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550617733520 · Cited by 31
“…instance, considerable research suggests that the motivation to see one’s own group (vs. an out-group) in a more favorable light can bias information processing (Hastorf & Cantril, 1954; Ledgerwood, Callahan, & Chaiken, 2014; Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Westen, Blagov, Harenski, Kilts, & Hamann, 2006).”
Background
Sudden Shifts in Social Identity Swiftly Shape Implicit Evaluation
Xiao, Y. J., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2019.03.005 · Cited by 32
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Perspective Taking in Groups
Caruso, E. M., Nicholas Epley, A., & Bazerman, M. H. (2006) · Research on managing groups and teams · doi:10.1016/s1534-0856(06)08010-8 · Cited by 34

Authors: Hastorf, A. H., & Cantril, H.
Venue: The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1954-01
Volume: 49
Issue: 1
Pages: 129-134
ISSN: 0096-851X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1037/h0057880
OpenAlex: W4254129346
Cited by: 882
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 86 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 26
FWCI: 3.44
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychology and Mental Health
Social Sciences › Education › Physical education and sports games research

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