Building up and wearing down episodic memory: mnemonic discrimination and relational binding
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Abstract
Our capacity to form and retrieve episodic memories improves over childhood but declines in old age. Understanding these changes requires decomposing episodic memory into its components. Two such components are (a) mnemonic discrimination of similar people, objects, and contexts, and (b) relational binding of these elements. We designed novel memory tasks to assess these component processes using animations that are appropriate across the life span (ages 4-80 in our sample). In Experiment 1, we assessed mnemonic discrimination of objects as well as relational binding, in a common task format. Both components follow an inverted U-shaped curve across age but were positively correlated only in the aging group. In Experiment 2, we examined mnemonic discrimination of context and its effect on relational binding. Relational memory in low-similarity contexts showed robust gains between the ages of 4 and 6, whereas 6-year-olds performed similarly to adults. In contrast, relational memory in high-similarity contexts showed more protracted development, with 4- and 6-year-olds both performing worse than young adults and not differing from each other. Relational memory in both context conditions declined in aging. This multiprocess approach provides important theoretical insights into life span changes in episodic memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
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Previous studies have consistently reported age-related improvements in context binding, or relational binding in general, throughout early and middle childhood.
“Previous studies have consistently reported age-related improvements in context binding—or relational binding in general—throughout early and middle childhood 12,17,22,23.”
From Contingency of semantic generalization on episodic specificity varies across development (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
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Age differences in generalization, memory specificity, and their overnight fate in childhood
Buchberger, E. S., Joechner, A., Ngo, C. T., Lindenberger, U., & Werkle‐Bergner, M. (2024) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14089 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Using retrieval contingencies to understand memory integration and inference
Yu, W., Duncan, K. D., & Schlichting, M. L. (2025) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-025-01727-8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Coughlin, C. A., Pudhiyidath, A., Roome, H. E., Varga, N. L., Nguyen, K. V., & Preston, A. R. (2023) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13437 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Building a cumulative science of memory development
Ngo, C. T., Buchberger, E. S., Nguyen, P. T. U., Newcombe, N. S., & Werkle‐Bergner, M. (2024) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2024.101119 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Effects of spatial boundaries on episodic memory development
Rah, Y. J., Kim, J., & Lee, S. A. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13776 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Peng, M., Lovos, A., Bottrill, K., Hughes, K., Sampsel, M., Lee, N., Abbeduto, L., Thurman, A. J., & Edgin, J. O. (2023) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.23576 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Li, A. Y., Fukuda, K., Lee, A. C. H., & Barense, M. D. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/535922 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The Development of the Mental Timeline is Related to Temporal Memory
Sener, S. B., & Starr, A. (2024) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2024.2404863 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The cost of changing language context: The language-dependent recall of fictional stories
Bilgin, E., Adıgüzel, Z., Göksun, T., & Gülgöz, S. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-023-01415-5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Rollins, L., Huffman, D. J., Walters, L. A., & Bennett, K. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105742 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Light, L. L. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190917982.013.55 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Nguyen, K. V., Olson, I. R., & Newcombe, N. S. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001805 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Episodic memory development in normal and adverse environments
Bouyeure, A., & Noulhiane, M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817986-4.00044-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Contingency of Semantic Generalization on Episodic Specificity: Variations Across DevelopmentPreprint
Ngo, C. T., Benear, S. L., Popal, H. S., Olson, I. R., & Newcombe, N. S. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3732375 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Pattern separation and pattern completion in early childhood
Cohen, S. S., Ngo, C. T., Olson, I. R., & Newcombe, N. S. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2416985122 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Developmental differences in hippocampal long-axis contributions to memory precision
Vijayarajah, S., & Schlichting, M. L. (2025) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2025.101654 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Maturity of white matter tracts is associated with episodic memory recall during development
Bouyeure, A., Bekha, D., Patil, S., Hertz‐Pannier, L., & Noulhiane, M. (2022) · Cerebral Cortex Communications · doi:10.1093/texcom/tgac004 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Age differences in generalization, memory specificity and their overnight fate in childhoodPreprint
Buchberger, E., Joechner, A., Ngo, C. T., Lindenberger, U., & Werkle‐Bergner, M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/y6ndr · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A compressed code for memory discriminationPreprint
Zhou, D.-L., Noh, S. M., Harhen, N. C., Banavar, N. V., Hartley, C. A., Kirwan, C. B., Yassa, M., & Bornstein, A. M. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.10.12.681901 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Davis, E. E., Thomas, H., Price, M., Mahy, C. E. V., & Campbell, K. L. (2025) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2025.2493337 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Friend, O. W., Pathman, T., & Preston, A. R. (2026) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2026.101713 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Evidence for complementary learning systems within the hippocampus
Singh, D., & Schapiro, A. C. (2026) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2025.0243 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Developmental Sequences Constrain Models of the Mind
Newcombe, N. S., & Nguyen, K. V. (2025) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192882547.003.0002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Developmental Sequences Constrain Models of the MindPreprint
Newcombe, N. S., & Nguyen, K. V. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vhuwc · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Development of episodic memory
Selmeczy, D., & Ghetti, S. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820480-1.00130-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Spontaneous reinstatement of episodic memories in the developing human brainPreprint
Yates, T. S., Callaghan, B. L., Silvers, J. A., VanTieghem, M., Choy, T., O’Sullivan, K., Davachi, L., & Tottenham, N. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.09.15.676365 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Memories of structured input become increasingly distorted across development - Working PaperPreprint
Forest, T. A., Abolghasem, Z., Finn, A. S., & Schlichting, M. L. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7y6z9
Building a Cumulative Science of Memory DevelopmentPreprint
Ngo, C. T., Buchberger, E., Nguyen, P. T. U., Newcombe, N. S., & Werkle‐Bergner, M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dwz2q
Children’s memory for events: The challenge of free recallPreprint
Benear, S. L., Onwukanjo, O., Olson, I. R., & Newcombe, N. S. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/n39ju
Memory Development in Middle Childhood and Adolescence
Ghetti, S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190917982.013.54
Preserved memory for decisions across adulthood
Taylor, M. K., Samanez-Larkin, G., & Marsh, E. J. (2024) · Neuropsychology, development, and cognition. Section B, Aging, neuropsychology and cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2024.2398790
Development of episodic memory: A neurocognitive account
Coughlin, C. A., & Ghetti, S. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15754-7.00050-x
Measuring relational memory in older and younger adults
Sexton, J. N., Behm, L., Rose, J. A., Phipps, C. J., Ramirez, M. K., Heller, A. M., Wilhelm, A. F., Armbruster, E. A., Nagengast, C. E., & Warren, D. E. (2025) · Frontiers in Cognition · doi:10.3389/fcogn.2025.1499032
Neural Maturity of Encoding States Supports Gains to Memory Precision in Childhood
Vijayarajah, S., & Schlichting, M. L. (2025) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.70003
Neural responses to state curiosity in young children
Ziv, M. S., Ellwood-Lowe, M. E., Botdorf, M., Nishio, M., Bonawitz, E. B., & Mackey, A. P. (2026) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2026.101687
Neural Representations of Reward-Related Memories Shift across Development
Cohen, A. O., Benear, S. L., Phaneuf-Hadd, C. V., Davachi, L., & Hartley, C. A. (2026) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1325-25.2026
The mental timeline is used as a memory strategy
Sener, S. B., & Starr, A. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106902
[Elisa S. Buchberger and Ann-Kathrin Joechner contributed equally to this work.]
Buchberger, E., Joechner, A., Ngo, C., Lindenberger, U., & Werkle‐Bergner, M. (2024) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society)
Related memories exhibit interference during learning in adults but later retrieval in children
Woodbury, M., Duan, C., Brol, E., Seeger, R. P., Yang, T., & Schlichting, M. L. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0356464
- Authors
- Ngo, C. T., Lin, Y., Newcombe, N. S., & Olson, I. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Rochester (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General
- Published
- 2019-09
- Volume
- 148
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 1463-1479
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- PMC
- PMC6715497
- OpenAlex
- W2925250592
- Cited by
- 65
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 3.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (F31HD090872)
- National Science Foundation (SBE-1041707)
- National Institute of Mental Health (RO1 MH091113)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- episodic memory, mnemonic discrimination, relational binding, relational memory, memory development, aging, object recognition, contextual memory, older adults
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Longevity, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Comprehension, Young Adult, Memory, Episodic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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