Assessing fear and anxiety in humans using the threat of predictable and unpredictable aversive events (the NPU-threat test)
Open accessAbstract
The threat of predictable and unpredictable aversive events was developed to assess short-duration (fear) and long-duration (anxiety) aversive states in humans. A typical experiment consists of three conditions: a safe condition (neutral (N)), during which participants are safe from aversive stimuli, and two threat conditions—one in which aversive events are administered predictably (P) (i.e., signaled by a threat cue), and one in which aversive stimuli are administered unpredictably (U). During the so-called NPU-threat test, ongoing change in aversive states is measured with the startle reflex. The NPU-threat test has been validated in pharmacological and clinical studies and can be implemented in children and adults. Similar procedures have been applied in animal models, making the NPU-threat test an ideal tool for translational research. The procedure is relatively short (35 min), simple to implement and generates consistent results with large effect sizes.
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The pattern of responses to the different conditions closely matches that of previous research where the number of shocks was matched in the P and U conditions, rendering the shock number difference unlikely to affect the results.
“However, the pattern of responses to the different conditions closely matches that of previous research where the number of shocks was matched in the P and U conditions, rendering this option unlikely (e.g., Schmitz & Grillon, 2012).”
From Responding to uncertain threat: A potential mediator for the effect of mindfulness on anxiety (2021) · cites this paper as Schmitz & Grillon, 2012
The Equipment Setup section describes shocks in both P and U conditions, and Anticipated Results describes the expected pattern of startle responses. The copy does not explicitly say that shock counts were matched between P and U or conclude that a difference in shock counts is unlikely to affect the results. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThese startle patterns are comparable to what previous applications of the NPU have shown.
“These patterns are comparable to what previous applications of the NPU have shown (cf. Schmitz and Grillon, 2012; Papenfuss et al., 2021).”
From Aversive response to uncertainty as a mediator for the effect of a mindfulness intervention on symptoms of anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Schmitz and Grillon, 2012
The threat task showed patterns of responses to predictable and unpredictable threat similar to previous research.
“The non-significant findings were particularly unexpected from the perspective that the threat task showed patterns of responses to predictable and unpredictable threat similar to previous research (Schmitz & Grillon, 2012).”
From Responding to uncertain threat: A potential mediator for the effect of mindfulness on anxiety (2021) · cites this paper as Schmitz & Grillon, 2012
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“The task was a modified version of a published threat test (35) that included four conditions: (1) predictable positive events (PP), (2) predictable negative events (PN), (3) unpredictable positive events (UP), and (4) unpredictable negative events (UN).”
Background
- Authors
- Schmitz, A., & Grillon, C.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- National Institute of Mental Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Schmitz, Anja
- Venue
- Nature Protocols
- Published
- 2012-02-23
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 527-532
- ISSN
- 1750-2799 (ISSN-L)
- 1754-2189
- PMC
- PMC3446242
- OpenAlex
- W2043873605
- Semantic Scholar
- 09633a42f66194c7ba5fccce6b6d4d0f5eda10ac
- Cited by
- 383
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 8.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Protocols (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (ZIAMH002798, Z01MH002798, Z01MH002804)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- fear, anxiety, startle response, aversive states, translational research, animal models
- MeSH terms
- Anxiety, Fear, Humans, Psychological Tests, Reflex, Startle, Anticipation, Psychological
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