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Cited by 1,217Viral Infections and Immunology ResearchCardiac Fibrosis and RemodelingCardiomyopathy and Myosin Studies

Myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy: current evidence and future directions

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Tschöpe, Carsten, Ammirati, Enrico, Bozkurt, Biykem, Caforio, Alida L. P., Cooper, Leslie T., Felix, Stephan B., Hare, Joshua M., Heidecker, Bettina +11 more·2021·Nature Reviews Cardiology
DOI 10.1038/s41569-020-00435-xPMC PMC7548534
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Abstract

Inflammatory cardiomyopathy, characterized by inflammatory cell infiltration into the myocardium and a high risk of deteriorating cardiac function, has a heterogeneous aetiology. Inflammatory cardiomyopathy is predominantly mediated by viral infection, but can also be induced by bacterial, protozoal or fungal infections as well as a wide variety of toxic substances and drugs and systemic immune-mediated diseases. Despite extensive research, inflammatory cardiomyopathy complicated by left ventricular dysfunction, heart failure or arrhythmia is associated with a poor prognosis. At present, the reason why some patients recover without residual myocardial injury whereas others develop dilated cardiomyopathy is unclear. The relative roles of the pathogen, host genomics and environmental factors in disease progression and healing are still under discussion, including which viruses are active inducers and which are only bystanders. As a consequence, treatment strategies are not well established. In this Review, we summarize and evaluate the available evidence on the pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy, with a special focus on virus-induced and virus-associated myocarditis. Furthermore, we identify knowledge gaps, appraise the available experimental models and propose future directions for the field. The current knowledge and open questions regarding the cardiovascular effects associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection are also discussed. This Review is the result of scientific cooperation of members of the Heart Failure Association of the ESC, the Heart Failure Society of America and the Japanese Heart Failure Society.

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  • The pronounced expansion of Mac-rMHCII and its associated pro-inflammatory signature, including elevated Il1b and Stat2 expression, may directly impair cardiomyocyte contractility through cytokine-mediated suppression of calcium handling and sarcomeric protein function.

    “The pronounced expansion of Mac-rMHCII and its associated pro-inflammatory signature, including elevated Il1b and Stat2 expression, may directly impair cardiomyocyte contractility through the cytokine-mediated suppression of calcium handling and sarcomeric protein function, which are mechanisms well-described in inflammatory cardiomyopathy [43].”

    From Cardiac Macrophages Exhibit Dynamic Heterogeneity and Functional Specialization During Experimental Autoimmune Myocarditis. (2026) · cites this paper as [43]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In lymphocytic myocarditis, autoreactive immune responses, both humoral and cellular, may induce pathogenic inflammation due to tissue damage from repeated viral challenges or molecular mimicry between virus and heart antigens.

    “whether due to tissue damage caused by repeated viral challenges or molecular mimicry between virus and heart antigens, autoreactive immune responses, both humoral and cellular, may induce pathogenic inflammation in lymphocytic myocarditis”

    From Autoimmune Myocarditis, Old Dogs and New Tricks. (2024) · cites this paper as [7]

    The Pathogenesis sections on viruses and autoimmunity describe virus-triggered cardiac injury, a possible cellular immune response through molecular mimicry, and antibody- and cell-mediated autoimmune disease in animal models (page not specified in our copy). They do not specifically link repeated viral challenges or mimicry between viral and heart antigens to these responses, and say it remains unknown whether both autoimmune forms occur in patients. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • An unnoticed history of viral infection may contribute to the migration and activation of autoreactive T cells in the heart.

    “an unnoticed history of viral infection may contribute to the migration and activation of autoreactive T cells in the heart. 7,10,31,107”

    From Autoimmune Myocarditis, Old Dogs and New Tricks. (2024) · cites this paper as [7]

    The Pathogenesis section ('Role of immune cells'; page not provided) links viral myocarditis to T-cell activation and identifies activated T cells as important in autoimmune myocarditis. It does not say that an unnoticed prior infection causes autoreactive T cells to migrate to and become activated in the heart; its discussion of immune-cell homing does not establish that specific mechanism. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Cardiotropic viruses such as adenoviruses and enteroviruses can directly damage the heart, leading to the development of myocarditis.

    “cardiotropic viruses such as adenoviruses and enteroviruses can directly damage the heart, leading to the development of myocarditis”

    From Autoimmune Myocarditis, Old Dogs and New Tricks. (2024) · cites this paper as [7]

  • Certain viruses including HIV, hepatitis C virus, influenza A virus, and influenza B virus are thought to trigger myocarditis by activating the immune system.

    “certain viruses including HIV, hepatitis C virus, influenza A virus, and influenza B virus are thought to trigger myocarditis by activating the immune system”

    From Autoimmune Myocarditis, Old Dogs and New Tricks. (2024) · cites this paper as [7]

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Authors
Tschöpe, C., Ammirati, E., Bozkurt, B., Caforio, A. L. P., Cooper, L. T., Felix, S. B., Hare, J. M., Heidecker, B., Heymans, S., Hübner, N., Kelle, S., Klingel, K., Maatz, H., Parwani, A. S., Spillmann, F., Starling, R. C., Tsutsui, H., Seferovic, P., & Van Linthout, S.
Affiliations
  • Berlin-Brandenburger Centrum für Regenerative Therapien (DE)
  • Azienda Socio Sanitaria Territoriale Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda (IT)
  • Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center (US)
  • University of Padua (IT)
  • Mayo Clinic (US)
  • Universitätsmedizin Greifswald (DE)
  • University of Miami (US)
  • Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin (DE)
  • Maastricht University (NL)
  • Max Delbrück Center (DE)
  • Deutsches Herzzentrum der Charité (DE)
  • Universitätsklinikum Tübingen (DE)
  • Cleveland Clinic (US)
  • Kyushu University (JP)
  • University of Belgrade (RS)
Corresponding author
Tschöpe, Carsten
ORCID
Venue
Nature Reviews Cardiology
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2020-10-12
Volume
18
Issue
3
Pages
169-193
ISSN
  • 1759-5002 (ISSN-L)
  • 1759-5010
DOI
10.1038/s41569-020-00435-x
PMC
PMC7548534
OpenAlex
W3092415006
Cited by
1,217
References
14
Citations by year
2026: 183 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 216 · 2023: 232 · 2022: 254 · 2021: 114 · 2020: 5
FWCI
25.66
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Nature Reviews Cardiology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • MDC Repository (Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine) (submittedVersion)
  • Lirias (submittedVersion)
  • Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Viral Infections and Immunology Research
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac Fibrosis and Remodeling
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiomyopathy and Myosin Studies
Keywords
myocarditis, inflammatory cardiomyopathy, viral infection, dilated cardiomyopathy, left ventricular dysfunction, heart failure, cardiac arrhythmias, SARS-CoV-2, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, experimental model, host genomics
MeSH terms
COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Animals, Antiviral Agents, Biopsy, Cardiomyopathy, Dilated, Coxsackievirus Infections, Cytomegalovirus Infections, Disease Models, Animal, Echovirus Infections, Hepatitis C, Humans, Immunologic Factors, Inflammation, Influenza, Human, Leukocytes, Cardiomyopathies, Myocarditis, Myocardium, Prognosis, Virus Diseases, Autoimmunity, HIV Infections, Erythema Infectiosum, Immunoglobulins, Intravenous, Coronavirus Infections, Roseolovirus Infections, Epstein-Barr Virus Infections, Ventricular Remodeling, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Viral Tropism, Translational Research, Biomedical

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