The transcription factor Grainy head primes epithelial enhancers for spatiotemporal activation by displacing nucleosomes
Open accessAbstract
Transcriptional enhancers function as docking platforms for combinations of transcription factors (TFs) to control gene expression. How enhancer sequences determine nucleosome occupancy, TF recruitment and transcriptional activation in vivo remains unclear. Using ATAC-seq across a panel of Drosophila inbred strains, we found that SNPs affecting binding sites of the TF Grainy head (Grh) causally determine the accessibility of epithelial enhancers. We show that deletion and ectopic expression of Grh cause loss and gain of DNA accessibility, respectively. However, although Grh binding is necessary for enhancer accessibility, it is insufficient to activate enhancers. Finally, we show that human Grh homologs-GRHL1, GRHL2 and GRHL3-function similarly. We conclude that Grh binding is necessary and sufficient for the opening of epithelial enhancers but not for their activation. Our data support a model positing that complex spatiotemporal expression patterns are controlled by regulatory hierarchies in which pioneer factors, such as Grh, establish tissue-specific accessible chromatin landscapes upon which other factors can act.
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A potentially large fraction of accessible regions captured by scATAC-seq may not represent functional enhancers.
“Thus, a potentially large fraction of accessible regions, as captured by scATAC-seq, may not represent functional enhancers.”
From Enhancer grammar of liver cell types and hepatocyte zonation states (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
In Results, “Grainyhead regulates enhancer accessibility but not activity” (page unavailable), 15 of 21 tested Grh-target regions showed reporter activity in the eye-antennal disc, and single-cell ATAC-seq accessibility did not establish activity. This supports the caution that accessibility alone does not establish enhancer function, but the paper does not estimate a potentially large nonfunctional fraction across scATAC-seq accessible regions; regions inactive in that disc could function elsewhere. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAt least some pioneer factors, such as FOXA, OCT4 and SOX2/SOX11, initiate chromatin opening by direct displacement of histones.
“The mechanisms of pioneer factor action are still being established [37], but at least some of them (such as FOXA, OCT4 and SOX2/SOX11) have been shown to initiate chromatin opening by direct displacement of histones [38–41], whilst many others recruit chromatin remodelers [42–50].”
From Transcriptional enhancers and their communication with gene promoters (2021) · cites this paper as [41]
The introductory passage (labelled Abstract in our copy; page unavailable) describes pioneer factors as transcription factors that can displace nucleosomes and names FOXA1 and SOX2 as examples. The Results section, “Functional Grainyhead motifs are embedded in a specific DNA context” (page unavailable), also associates pioneer-factor binding with nucleosome displacement. But the paper does not establish direct histone displacement for each named factor: it mentions OCT4 as a possible additional factor needed for SOX2-dependent enhancer activation and does not mention SOX11. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredChromatin accessibility is not necessarily always associated with enhancer activity.
“However, chromatin accessibility is not necessarily always associated with enhancer activity35.”
From Single-cell spatial multi-omics and deep learning dissect enhancer-driven gene regulatory networks in liver zonation (2024) · cites this paper as [35]
Chromatin accessibility is necessary but not sufficient for enhancer activity.
“chromatin accessibility is necessary but not sufficient for activity9.”
From Enhancer grammar of liver cell types and hepatocyte zonation states (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
Chromatin accessibility is not necessarily always associated with enhancer activity.
“chromatin accessibility is not necessarily always associated with enhancer activity9.”
From Enhancer grammar of liver cell types and hepatocyte zonation states (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
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Pioneer Transcription Factors Initiating Gene Network Changes
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“However, chromatin accessibility is not necessarily always associated with enhancer activity 35 .”
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Dissecting the regulatory logic of specification and differentiation during vertebrate embryogenesisPreprint
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Sun, J., Zhang, C., Gao, F., & Stathopoulos, A. (2023) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113289 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Mesenchymal-to-Epithelial Transitions in Development and Cancer
Ng-Blichfeldt, J.-P., & Röper, K. (2020) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-0779-4_7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Epigenetic Mechanisms Influencing Therapeutic Response in Breast Cancer
Arruabarrena-Aristorena, A., & Toska, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2022.924808 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Exploring the reciprocity between pioneer factors and development
Freund, M. M., Harrison, M. M., & Torres‐Zelada, E. F. (2024) · Development · doi:10.1242/dev.201921 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Holm, I., Nardini, L., Pain, A., Bischoff, E., Anderson, C. E., Zongo, S., Guelbeogo, M. W., Sagnon, N., Gohl, D. M., Nowling, R. J., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2021.785934 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Genetic variation in chromatin state across multiple tissues in Drosophila melanogaster
Huynh, K., Smith, B. R., Macdonald, S. J., & Long, A. D. (2023) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1010439 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Legrand, M., Louveau, B., Macagno, N., Mancini, M., Kazakov, D. V., Pissaloux, D., Tirode, F., Tallet, A., Mourah, S., Lepiller, Q., et al. (2024) · Histopathology · doi:10.1111/his.15361 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Loh, L. S., Hanly, J. J., Carter, A., Chatterjee, M., Tsimba, M., Shodja, D. N., Livraghi, L., Day, C. R., Reed, R. D., McMillan, W. O., et al. (2025) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3003233 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Khan, S. U., & Khan, M. U. (2021) · Journal of Chemistry and Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.48185/jcnb.v2i2.378 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Functional roles of Grainyhead-like transcription factors in renal development and disease
Boivin, F. J., & Schmidt-Ott, K. M. (2018) · Pediatric Nephrology · doi:10.1007/s00467-018-4171-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Regulatory genome annotation of 33 insect speciesPreprint
Asma, H., Tieke, E., Deem, K. D., Rahmat, J., Dong, T., Huang, X., Tomoyasu, Y., & Halfon, M. S. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.96738 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
GCparagon: evaluating and correcting GC biases in cell-free DNA at the fragment level
Spiegl, B., Kapidzic, F., Röner, S., Kircher, M., & Speicher, M. R. (2023) · NAR Genomics and Bioinformatics · doi:10.1093/nargab/lqad102 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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The transcription factor optomotor-blind restricts apterous expression through TrxG and PcG genes
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What can genetic association panels tell us about evolutionary processes in insects?
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The role of maternal pioneer factors in predefining first zygotic responses to inductive signalsPreprint
Gentsch, G. E., Spruce, T., Owens, N. D. L., & Smith, J. C. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/306803 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Enhancer architecture and chromatin accessibility constrain phenotypic space during developmentPreprint
Galupa, R., Álvarez-Canales, G., Borst, N. O., Fuqua, T., Gándara, L., Misunou, N., Richter, K., Alves, M. R. P., Karumbi, E., Perkins, M. L., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.06.02.494376 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Enhancer grammar of liver cell types and hepatocyte zonation states
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- Authors
- Jacobs, J., Atkins, M., Davie, K., Imrichova, H., Romanelli, L., Christiaens, V., Hulselmans, G., Potier, D., Wouters, J., Taskiran, I. I., Paciello, G., González-Blas, C. B., Koldere, D., Aibar, S., Halder, G., & Aerts, S.
- Affiliations
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research (BE)
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Cancer Biology (BE)
- Boğaziçi University (TR)
- Politecnico di Torino (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Aerts, Stein
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Genetics
- Published
- 2018-06-04
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1011-1020
- ISSN
- 1061-4036 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-1718
- PMC
- PMC6031307
- OpenAlex
- W2806844404
- Cited by
- 155
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 8
- FWCI
- 6.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Genetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Lirias (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (P40OD018537)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Chromatin Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Chromatin Remodeling and Cancer
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Epigenetics and DNA Methylation
- Keywords
- transcription factors, enhancer accessibility, nucleosome displacement, pioneer factors, chromatin accessibility, GRHL1, GRHL2, GRHL3, Drosophila, transcriptional activation, regulatory hierarchy, tissue-specific gene expression, single nucleotide polymorphisms
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Binding Sites, Chromatin, DNA-Binding Proteins, Drosophila melanogaster, Enhancer Elements, Genetic, Epithelial Cells, Humans, Nucleosomes, Transcription Factors, Transcriptional Activation, Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental, Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide, Drosophila Proteins, Animals, Genetically Modified, Cell Line, Tumor, MCF-7 Cells
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