Cited by 930Family and Disability Support ResearchDown syndrome and intellectual disability researchChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., Low, C.·2003·Journal of Intellectual Disability Research

DOI 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x

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Abstract

Background Children with intellectual disability are at heightened risk for behaviour problems and diagnosed mental disorder. Methods The present authors studied the early manifestation and continuity of problem behaviours in 205 pre‐school children with and without developmental delays. Results Behaviour problems were quite stable over the year from age 36–48 months. Children with developmental delays were rated higher on behaviour problems than their non‐delayed peers, and were three times as likely to score in the clinical range. Mothers and fathers showed high agreement in their rating of child problems, especially in the delayed group. Parenting stress was also higher in the delayed group, but was related to the extent of behaviour problems rather than to the child's developmental delay. Conclusions Over time, a transactional model fit the relationship between parenting stress and behaviour problems: high parenting stress contributed to a worsening in child behaviour problems over time, and high child behaviour problems contributed to a worsening in parenting stress. Findings for mothers and fathers were quite similar.

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“…bidirectional relationship between parenting stress and child behavior problems such that increases in parenting stress not only lead to increases in child behavior problems, but increases in child behavior problems also lead to increases in parenting stress (Baker et al. 2003; Neece et al. 2012).”
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Developmental disabilities across the world: A scientometric review from 1936 to 2020
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Resilient parenting of preschool children at developmental risk
Ellingsen, R. W., Baker, B. L., Blacher, J., & Crnic, K. A. (2013) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12063 · Cited by 41
Self-citation
Relationship dimensions of the ‘ D own syndrome advantage’
Mitchell, D. B., Hauser‐Cram, P., & Crossman, M. K. (2014) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12153 · Cited by 42
“Although the bulk of evidence regarding disability-related differences in parenting have favoured families of children with Down syndrome, most studies have focused on parent reported parenting stress (Krauss 1993; Hauser-Cram et al. 2001; Baker et al. 2002, 2003; Eisenhower et al. 2005).”
BackgroundResult
Predictors of parenting stress among Vietnamese mothers of young children with and without cognitive delay
Shin, J. Y., & Nhan, N. V. (2009) · Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability · doi:10.1080/13668250802690914 · Cited by 34
“…in the future to examine specific child factors, such as the behavioural and cognitive challenges faced daily by children with cognitive delay, which may contribute to the parenting stress of these mothers (Baker et al., 2003; Beck, Hastings, Daley, & Stevenson, 2004; Mobarak et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Parenting stress in families of children with disabilities: Impact of type of disability and assessment of attending paediatricians
Scheibner, C., Scheibner, M., Hornemann, F., Arélin, M., Hennig, Y. D., Kiep, H., Wurst, U., Merkenschlager, A., & Gburek‐Augustat, J. (2023) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.13193 · Cited by 40
The role of marital quality and spousal support in behaviour problems of children with and without intellectual disability
Wieland, N., & Baker, B. L. (2010) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01293.x · Cited by 33
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Predicting Mother/Father–Child Interactions: Parental Personality and Well‐being, Socioeconomic Variables and Child Disability Status
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Associations Among Mothers’ Depression, Emotional and Learning-Material Support to Their Child, and Children's Cognitive Functioning: A 16-Year Longitudinal Study
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“That is, low child cognitive functioning is often accompanied by externalizing behaviors (Baker et al., 2003).”
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Acute kidney injury in Ugandan children with severe malaria is associated with long-term behavioral problems
Hickson, M., Conroy, A. L., Bangirana, P., Opoka, R. O., Idro, R., Ssenkusu, J. M., & John, C. C. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226405 · Cited by 33
“Developmentally disabled and otherwise cognitive impaired children struggle more than non-impaired children with behavioral auto-regulation, and can be more prone to behavioral escalation [29, 30].”
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Pathways to behavior problems in Norwegian kindergarten children: The role of parent emotion socialization and child emotion understanding
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“These types of interventions may be particularly beneficial for parents of children with developmental delays (DD), where levels of parenting stress are especially high (Baker et al., 2003; Emerson, 2003; Ferraioli & Harris, 2013; Hauser-Cram, Warfield, Shonkoff, & Krauss, 2001; Neece, Green, & Baker, 2012).”
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National Clinical Guidelines
(2017) · The American Pharmacists Association eBooks · doi:10.21019/9781582122885.nationalclinicalguidelines · Cited by 32
Parental Stress and Related Factors in Parents of Children with Cerebral Palsy
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Identifying patterns of anxiety and depression in children with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: Comorbidity predicts behavioral difficulties and impaired functional communications
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McIntyre, L. L. (2013) · International review of research in developmental disabilities · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-401662-0.00008-7 · Cited by 29
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Parenting Stress Related to Behavioral Problems and Disease Severity in Children with Problematic Severe Asthma
Verkleij, M., van de Griendt, E. J., Colland, V. T., Loey, N. E. E. V., Beelen, A., & Geenen, R. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings · doi:10.1007/s10880-015-9423-x · Cited by 37
“, higher levels of parental stress may increase a child’s behavioral problems, and the child’s increased behavioral problems may increase parental stress (Baker et al., 2003; Jones & Prinz, 2005).”
Parenting stress and home-based literacy interactions in low-income preschool families
Can, D. D., & Ginsburg-Block, M. D. (2016) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2016.07.002 · Cited by 30
Parent–child problem solving in families of children with or without intellectual disability
Wieland, N., Green, S. A., Ellingsen, R. W., & Baker, B. L. (2013) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12009 · Cited by 34
“Yet child behaviour problems, rather than cognitive limitations, were found to explain these parent and teacher status group differences, which were no longer apparent after accounting for behaviour problems (Baker et al. 2003; Blacher et al. 2009).”
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Parenting Children with Developmental Delays: The Role of Positive Beliefs
Paczkowski, E. A., & Baker, B. L. (2008) · Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1080/19315860801988392 · Cited by 30
“Parents of children with intellectual disability are faced not only with cognitive and social skills deficits but also with a heightened likelihood of behavior problems and/or diagnosable mental disorder ( Baker, McIntyre, Blacher, Crnic, Edelbrovk, & Low, 2003 ; Emerson, 2003 ; Hauser-Cram, Warfield, Shonkoff, & Krau…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Caring for children with learning disabilities who present problem behaviours: a maternal perspective
Johnson, R. F., O’Reilly, M. J., & Vostanis, P. (2006) · Journal of Child Health Care · doi:10.1177/1367493506066480 · Cited by 36
“, 1994), particularly the severity of child problem behaviours (Baker et al., 2003; Hodapp et al., 1998, 2003; Sharpley et al., 1997).”
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Sources of Stress among Parents of Children with Intellectual Disabilities: A Preliminary Investigation in Saudi Arabia
Aldosari, M. S., & Pufpaff, L. A. (2014) · The Journal of Special Education Apprenticeship · doi:10.58729/2167-3454.1031 · Cited by 30
Preschool hyperactivity specifically elevates long-term mental health risks more strongly in males than females: a prospective longitudinal study through to young adulthood
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“Furthermore, preschool children with DD are significantly more likely to develop later internalizing and externalizing problems than those without DD [44].”
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Life skills instruction for children with developmental disabilities
Robison, M. A., Mann, T. B., & Ingvarsson, E. T. (2019) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.602 · Cited by 29
Social Cognition in Children With Non-specific Intellectual Disabilities: An Exploratory Study
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The development of behavior problems among disabled and non-disabled children in England
Fauth, R. C., Platt, L., & Parsons, S. (2017) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2017.06.008 · Cited by 30
“…more total behavioral problems, more serious and clinically significant problems, and more persistent problem behavior (Alloway et al., 2009; Baker et al., 2003; Eisenhower et al., 2005; Emerson & Einfeld, 2010; Guralnick, Hammond, Connor, & Neville, 2006; Landa et al., 2013; Midouhas,…”
BackgroundInfluential
Family Well-being and Children with Intellectual Disability
Glidden, L. M. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195305012.013.0019 · Cited by 28
Mediator or moderator? The role of mindfulness in the association between child behavior problems and parental stress.
Chan, T., & Lam, S.-F. (2017) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2017.08.007 · Cited by 28
“Parents of children with intellectual disability (ID) often report more psychological distress than parents of typically developing children (Baker et al., 2003; Dabrowska & Pisula, 2010; Dyson, 1997; Eisenhower, Baker, & Blacher, 2005; Roach, Orsmond, & Barratt, 1999).”
Self-care in caregivers of children with FASD: How do caregivers care for themselves, and what are the benefits and obstacles for doing so?
Kautz‐Turnbull, C., Parr, J., & Petrenko, C. L. M. (2020) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103578 · Cited by 28
“Given the current literature on the transactional relationship between child problem behavior and parent stress (Baker et al., 2003), this finding suggests that although stress may be affected by child problem behavior, confidence in caring for oneself is not.”
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‘We have been in lockdown since he was born’: a mixed methods exploration of the experiences of families caring for children with intellectual disability during the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK
Wolstencroft, J., Hull, L., Warner, L., Akhtar, T. N., Mandy, W., Imagine ID Consortium, & Skuse, D. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049386 · Cited by 32
Cultural and child-related predictors of distress among Latina caregivers of children with intellectual disabilities.
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Co-occurrence of developmental and behavioural problems in moderate to late preterm-born children
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Developmental Risk and Goodness of Fit in the Mother-Child Relationship: Links to Parenting Stress and Children's Behaviour Problems
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“The presence of developmental risk stresses the parent–child relationship (Baker et al., 2003), and exploring ongoing interactions in such dyads may offer a specific view of goodness of fit processes.”
Self-citation
Study of Parental Perceptions on Health & Social Needs of Children with Neuro- Developmental Disability and It’s Impact on the Family
Ansari, N. J. R. (2016) · JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH · doi:10.7860/jcdr/2016/22538.9039 · Cited by 28
An Examination of Specific Child Behavior Problems as Predictors of Parenting Stress Among Families of Children With Pervasive Developmental Disorders
Davis, A. L., & Neece, C. L. (2017) · Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1080/19315864.2016.1276988 · Cited by 32
“…of parenting stress, or the extent to which the parent perceives stress in his or her parental role (Abidin, 1995), in parents of children with DD (Baker et al., 2003; Neece et al., 2012; Webster et al., 2008) as compared to parents of typically developing children (Oelofsen & Richardson, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential
Chapter 4 Socioeconomic Position, Poverty, and Family Research
Emerson, E., & Hatton, C. (2009) · International review of research in mental retardation · doi:10.1016/s0074-7750(09)37004-4 · Cited by 44

Authors: Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., & Low, C.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
University of California, Riverside (US)
Pennsylvania State University (US)
Corresponding author: Baker, B. L.
ORCID: Baker, B. L.
McIntyre, L. L.
Crnic, K.
Venue: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2003-05
Volume: 47
Issue: 4-5
Pages: 217-230
ISSN: 0964-2633 (ISSN-L)
1365-2788
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x
OpenAlex: W2154865829
Cited by: 930
References: 60
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 41
FWCI: 19.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 21 d)
Locations: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD34879-1459, R01HD034879)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: developmental delay, intellectual disability, preschool children, behavioral problems, parental stress, longitudinal stability, transactional model, early intervention
MeSH terms: Adult, Child Behavior Disorders, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Parents, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress, Psychological, Parenting

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

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