Cited by 930Family and Disability Support ResearchDown syndrome and intellectual disability researchChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., Low, C.·2003·Journal of Intellectual Disability Research

DOI 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x

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Abstract

Background Children with intellectual disability are at heightened risk for behaviour problems and diagnosed mental disorder. Methods The present authors studied the early manifestation and continuity of problem behaviours in 205 pre‐school children with and without developmental delays. Results Behaviour problems were quite stable over the year from age 36–48 months. Children with developmental delays were rated higher on behaviour problems than their non‐delayed peers, and were three times as likely to score in the clinical range. Mothers and fathers showed high agreement in their rating of child problems, especially in the delayed group. Parenting stress was also higher in the delayed group, but was related to the extent of behaviour problems rather than to the child's developmental delay. Conclusions Over time, a transactional model fit the relationship between parenting stress and behaviour problems: high parenting stress contributed to a worsening in child behaviour problems over time, and high child behaviour problems contributed to a worsening in parenting stress. Findings for mothers and fathers were quite similar.

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“…the extant research highlights that high levels of parenting stress are related to inappropriate parenting practices and negative parent–child interactions (Coyl et al., 2002; Martorell and Bugental, 2006), as well as to child behavior problems and child psychopathology (Baker et al., 2003).”
Background
Current Status and Future Directions
Goldin, R. L., & Matson, J. L. (2015) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-15437-4_14 · Cited by 11
Supporting Parents, Siblings, and Grandparents of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Fiske, K., Pepa, L., & Harris, S. L. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118911389.hautc40 · Cited by 11
Associations Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Stressful Life Events and Health Outcomes in Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women from Diverse Racial and Ethnic Groups
Zak-Hunter, L. M., Carr, C. P., Tate, A. D., Brustad, A., Mulhern, K., & Berge, J. M. (2023) · Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1089/jwh.2022.0329 · Cited by 12
“58,60 Our study ﬁndings have several important clinical implications.”
Parenting stress in parents with and without a mental illness and its relationship to psychopathology in children: a multimodal examination
Seipp, V., Hagelweide, K., Stark, R. M., Weigelt, S., Christiansen, H., Kieser, M., Otto, K., Reck, C., Steinmayr, R., Wirthwein, L., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1353088 · Cited by 11
Using Teacher Ratings to Investigate Developmental Regression as a Potential Indicator of School-Age Symptoms in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Mire, S. S., Anderson, J. E., Manis, J. K., Hughes, K. R., Raff, N. S., & Goin‐Kochel, R. P. (2018) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-018-9251-x · Cited by 10
Parent treatment integrity across multiple components of a behavioral intervention
Nuta, R., Koudys, J., & O’Neill, P. (2021) · Behavioral Interventions · doi:10.1002/bin.1817 · Cited by 10
“, 2014), these types of challenging behaviours are a great source of family stress and dissonance (Baker et al., 2003; Lecavalier, Leone, & Wiltz, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential
Prevalence of psychiatric morbidity among parents of children with intellectual disability
Mahawer, B., Tak, N., Sushil, C. S., & Sanadhya, R. (2018) · Industrial Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_39_18 · Cited by 10
“Earlier studies conclude that the parents of children with behavioral problems have a high rate of psychiatric morbidity.[22-24]”
Background
The Unforeseen Influence of Parents’ Socialization Behaviors on the Social Adjustment of Children with Intellectual Disabilities
Jacobs, É., Mazzone, S., Simon, P., & Nader‐Grosbois, N. (2019) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2019.109083 · Cited by 10
“…(Baker, Neece, Fenning, Crnic, & Blacher, 2010; Taylor, 2002) or internalizing problems (Merrell & Holland, 1997; Thirion-Marissiaux & Nader-Grosbois, 2008), or even both (Baker et al., 2003; Dekker & Koot, 2003; Dekker, Koot, Ende, & Verhulst, 2002; Emerson, 2003; Nader-Grosbois et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluential
Effectiveness of a multidisciplinary parent training program for children with developmental disabilities: A single-blind randomized waitlist controlled trial
Leung, C., Lai, C. Y. Y., Lau, D. K.-Y., Leung, S., & Pin, T. W. (2019) · Journal of Child Health Care · doi:10.1177/1367493519880447 · Cited by 10
“Understanding children’s developmental needs and acquiring strategies to manage their challenging behaviors can help reduce parenting stress, which is also associated with child behavior problems (Baker et al., 2003).”
Background
Transactional Relations between Child Functioning and Parenting Stress in the First Years of Life: A Longitudinal Study among Psychosocially Burdened Families
Evers, O., Georg, A. K., Wegener, C., Sidor, A., & Taubner, S. (2022) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000524101 · Cited by 10
Developmental Behaviour Checklist (DBC)
Einfeld, S., & Tonge, B. J. (2012) · Cited by 10
Différences entre les niveaux de stress de parents d’enfants ayant ou non une DI ou un TSA
Morin, D., Mondehare, L. D., Maltais, J., Picard, I., Moscato, M., & Tassé, M. J. (2014) · Revue francophone de la déficience intellectuelle · doi:10.7202/1028215ar · Cited by 14
Maternal and Paternal Perception of Child Vulnerability and Behaviour Problems in Very Preterm Born Children
Potharst, E. S., Houtzager, B. A., Leemhuis, A. G., Kok, J. H., Koot, H. M., & Last, B. F. (2015) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.1898 · Cited by 10
“Because of the cross-sectional nature of this study, no conclusions can be drawn about the direction of influences; child behaviour can be a risk factor for parental stress and PCV as well as the other way around (Baker et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluential
Développement d’une grille d’observation : considérations théoriques et méthodologiques
Guikas, I., Morin, D., & Bigras, M. (2017) · Revue francophone de la déficience intellectuelle · doi:10.7202/1043131ar · Cited by 19
Behavioural and emotional concerns reported by parents of children attending a neurodevelopmental diagnostic centre
Miller, A. R., Gardiner, E., & Harding, L. (2018) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12594 · Cited by 10
Attachment and Children with Disabilities: Knowledge and Views of Early Intervention Professionals
Alexander, S. L., Frederico, M., & Long, M. (2018) · Children Australia · doi:10.1017/cha.2018.38 · Cited by 10
“Children with a disability are less likely to be securely attached and more likely to display challenging behaviours (Baker et al., 2003; Charman, Ricketts, Dockrell, Lindsay, & Palikara, 2015).”
Background
Stressed parents, happy parents. An assessment of parenting stress and family quality of life in families with a child with Phelan‐McDermid syndrome
Droogmans, G., Vergaelen, E., Buggenhout, G. V., & Swillen, A. (2021) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12858 · Cited by 13
Finding Benefit and Feeling Strain in Parenting a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Adams, H. C., Zlomke, K. R., & Rossetti, K. G. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05663-3 · Cited by 12
“Research has consistently found that problem behaviors contribute to increased stress levels in caregivers (Baker et al., 2002; Baker et al., 2003; Lecavalier et al., 2006).”
Background
Predictors of harsh parenting practices in parents of children with disabilities
Norlin, D., Axberg, U., & Broberg, M. (2013) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2013.845562 · Cited by 11
“Child DBP were reported as more severe by the group of parents of children with disabilities than by control parents, replicating the established finding that behaviour problems are more common in these children (Baker et al., 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Research on Day Treatment Programs for Preschoolers With Disruptive Behavior Disorders
Tse, J. (2006) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.57.4.477 · Cited by 10
The Effects of Stress and Social Support on Externalizing Behaviors Among Children in Military Families
Sumner, J., Boisvert, D. L., & Andersen, J. P. (2015) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2015.1012403 · Cited by 10
“This finding supports previous research on the effects of both stress and social support on the internalizing, externalizing, and attention behavior of military children (Flake et al. 2009) and non-military children (Baker et al. 2003; Donenberg and Baker 1993; Suarez and Baker 1997).”
Result
Children’s and Parents’ Factors That Affect Parenting Stress in Preschool Children With Developmental Disabilities or Typical Development
Jung, E., Lee, T., Kim, J., & Kim, H. (2023) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2023.0223 · Cited by 12
“6,18 Previous research has shown that parenting stress is primarily determined by parent and child factors.”
Background
Parental Depression and Child Behavior Problems: A Pilot Study Examining Pathways of Influence
Xu, Y., Neece, C. L., & Parker, K. H. (2014) · Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1080/19315864.2013.787479 · Cited by 9
“Higher levels of parental stress have also been associated with increased behavior problems in children with developmental delays and ASD (Baker et al., 2003; Neece, Green, & Baker, 2012), which in turn may lead to parental depression (Murray et al., 1996).”
Background
Co-occurring Psychiatric Disorders in Individuals with Intellectual Disability
Ricciardi, J. N. (2013) · Issues in clinical child psychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6531-7_13 · Cited by 9
Targeted vs universal provision of support in high-risk communities: comparison of characteristics in two populations recruited to parenting interventions
Hutchings, J., Griffith, N., Bywater, T. J., Williams, M. E., & Baker‐Henningham, H. (2013) · Journal of Children s Services · doi:10.1108/jcs-03-2013-0009 · Cited by 9
“The relationship between developmental delay and behavioural problems is well established (Baker et al., 2003) as is the relationship between behavioural problems in early childhood and subsequent adolescent delinquency, adult criminality, high levels of unemployment and or transient, poorly paid…”
BackgroundInfluential
The relationship between parenting stress and maternal responsiveness among mothers of children with developmental problems
Perales, F. (2009) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 9
Child’s Challenging Behaviour Scale, Version 2 (CCBS–2): Psychometric Evaluation With Young Children
Bourke‐Taylor, H. M., Pallant, J., & Cordier, R. (2017) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2017.021733 · Cited by 9
“Difficult and challenging behaviors can be persistent over time without intervention (Baker et al., 2003) and can be associated with later antisocial behavior resulting in social exclusion, educational underachievement, and a cascade of adjustment issues associated with poor life satisfaction.”
Background
Professionals’ Perspectives on Service Delivery: The Impact of COVID-19 on Early Childhood Special Education Providers
Gomez, D., Kunze, M. G., Glenn, E., Todis, B. J., Kelley, K., Karns, C. M., Glang, A. E., & McIntyre, L. L. (2022) · Topics in Early Childhood Special Education · doi:10.1177/02711214211073964 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Mothers’ Parental Stress
Yan, H. X. (2022) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/21568693221091690 · Cited by 10
“Moreover, because parents experience higher parental stress when their children have disabilities or health problems (Baker et al. 2003; Hastings 2002), I also controlled mothers’ reports of child’s physical and developmental disabilities (yes/no), and health conditions (excellent, very good, good, fair or poor).”
Background
Support staff liaising effectively with family caregivers: Findings from a co-design event and recommendation for a staff training resource
Deb, S. S., & Limbu, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.977442 · Cited by 9
Utilisation des services en déficience intellectuelle et satisfaction des parents à leur égard
Tremblay, K. N., Côté, A., Lachance, L., & Richer, L. (2012) · Revue francophone de la déficience intellectuelle · doi:10.7202/1012987ar · Cited by 9
“L’ampleur de celle-ci rend alors les parents plus vulnérables au stress (Baker et al., 2003 ; Emerson, 2003; Floyd et Gallagher, 1997; Institut de la 57 REVUE FRANCOPHONE DE LA DÉFICIENCE INTELLECTUELLE statistique du Québec-ISQ, 2004; Lachance et al., 2004; Statistique Canada, 2008) et peut mener,…”
Background
Parental Bereavement and the Loss of a Child With Intellectual Disabilities: A Review of the Literature
Reilly, D., Hastings, R. P., Vaughan, F. L., & Huws, J. C. (2008) · Intellectual and developmental disabilities · doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2008)46[27:pbatlo]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 9
Coparenting and Child Outcomes in Families of Children Previously Identified With Developmental Delay
Rosencrans, M. E., & McIntyre, L. L. (2020) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-125.2.109 · Cited by 9
“This model is founded on the transactional nature of parenting and child behaviors (Baker et al., 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-citation

Authors: Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., & Low, C.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
University of California, Riverside (US)
Pennsylvania State University (US)
Corresponding author: Baker, B. L.
ORCID: Baker, B. L.
McIntyre, L. L.
Crnic, K.
Venue: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2003-05
Volume: 47
Issue: 4-5
Pages: 217-230
ISSN: 0964-2633 (ISSN-L)
1365-2788
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x
OpenAlex: W2154865829
Cited by: 930
References: 60
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 41
FWCI: 19.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 21 d)
Locations: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD34879-1459, R01HD034879)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: developmental delay, intellectual disability, preschool children, behavioral problems, parental stress, longitudinal stability, transactional model, early intervention
MeSH terms: Adult, Child Behavior Disorders, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Parents, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress, Psychological, Parenting

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

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