Cited by 930Family and Disability Support ResearchDown syndrome and intellectual disability researchChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., Low, C.·2003·Journal of Intellectual Disability Research

DOI 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x

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Abstract

Background Children with intellectual disability are at heightened risk for behaviour problems and diagnosed mental disorder. Methods The present authors studied the early manifestation and continuity of problem behaviours in 205 pre‐school children with and without developmental delays. Results Behaviour problems were quite stable over the year from age 36–48 months. Children with developmental delays were rated higher on behaviour problems than their non‐delayed peers, and were three times as likely to score in the clinical range. Mothers and fathers showed high agreement in their rating of child problems, especially in the delayed group. Parenting stress was also higher in the delayed group, but was related to the extent of behaviour problems rather than to the child's developmental delay. Conclusions Over time, a transactional model fit the relationship between parenting stress and behaviour problems: high parenting stress contributed to a worsening in child behaviour problems over time, and high child behaviour problems contributed to a worsening in parenting stress. Findings for mothers and fathers were quite similar.

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Montaque, I., Dallos, R., & McKenzie, B. (2017) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1359104517730114 · Cited by 26
“Therefore, perhaps the parent’s role in the transactional model (Baker et al., 2003) may belie the crucial differentiation that contributes to the pronounced disparity in stress, rather than the child’s behaviour itself.”
BackgroundInfluential
Maternal Affection Moderates the Associations Between Parenting Stress and Early Adolescents’ Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior
Šilinskas, G., Kiuru, N. H., Aunola, K., Metsäpelto, R., Lerkkanen, M., & Nurmi, J. (2019) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431619833490 · Cited by 20
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Martin, A. M., Marin, D. G., McIntyre, L. L., & Neece, C. L. (2021) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/10664807211052480 · Cited by 19
“Raising a child with a DD results in greater caretaking demands compared to children not diagnosed with a DD (Ashworth et al., 2019; Baker et al., 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Psychological treatment strategies for challenging behaviours in neurodevelopmental disorders: what lies beyond a purely behavioural approach?
Woodcock, K. A., & Blackwell, S. (2019) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000571 · Cited by 19
“Such challenging behaviour (CB) has a major negative impact on the lives of people with NDDs and their family members, being associated with increased family health problems and cost of care [2-5].”
Background
The psychopathology of children with intellectual disabilities
Tonge, B. J. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511543616.007 · Cited by 19
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“This finding is consistent with theoretical expectations that parenting stress continually fluctuates in relation to the child’s developmental stages and the environmental demands placed on child and parents (Baker et al., 2003).”
Result
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“Previous studies have shown that families of children with chronic conditions experience major effects from the burden of care [3,4], including increased financial pressures [5,6].”
Background
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Chan, N., & Neece, C. L. (2017) · Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1080/23794925.2017.1399484 · Cited by 23
“In particular, parenting stress has been found to be a robust predictor of the development of child behavior problems among children with DD (Baker et al., 2003; Neece et al., 2012).”
Background
Developmental and behavioral problems in preschool-aged primary ciliary dyskinesia patients
Akkuş, P. Z., Hızal, M. G., Bahadur, E. İ., Özmert, E. N., Polat, S. E., Özdemir, G., Karahan, S., Yalcin, E. K., Doğru, D., Ki̇per, N., et al. (2019) · European Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s00431-019-03382-z · Cited by 20
Chapter Eight Understanding Individual Differences in Adaptation in Parents of Children with Intellectual Disabilities
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“Maladaptive child behavior and parenting stress have been found to have mutually escalating effects on each other (Baker et al., 2003).”
Background
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“Parenting practice and the parents’ separation or divorce are significant risk factors [26], other factors influencing the children’s mental well-being are mother’s socioeconomic status, as well as other household characteristics [10].”
Background
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“These children tend to have more behavioral problems, both externalizing and internalizing (Baker et al., 2003), compared with their peers with normal development (Eisenhower et al., 2005; Merrell & Holland, 1997; Pantolfi et al., 2009).”
Background
Understanding the causes and management of problem behaviour in Zimbabwean schools: teacher perceptions
Chitiyo, M., Chitiyo, G., Chitiyo, J., Oyedele, V., Makoni, R., Fonnah, D., & Chipangure, L. (2014) · International Journal of Inclusive Education · doi:10.1080/13603116.2013.875068 · Cited by 17
“However, research indicates that some problem behaviours could be associated with disability (Baker et al. 2003; Einfeld and Tonge 1996; Eisenhower, Baker, and Blacher 2005; Mitchell and Hauser-Cram 2009).”
Background
The Impact of Demographic Characteristics and the Positive Perceptions of Parents on Quality of Life in Families with a Member with Intellectual Disability
Ferrer, F., Vilaseca, R., & Bersabé, R. M. (2016) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-016-9515-z · Cited by 17
“2010), but additional studies are needed to corroborate these findings and rule out the moderating effect of other variables, for example, any behavioral problems of children with ID (Baker et al. 2003).”
Background
Parent‐early adolescent relationship quality and problem behavior in Hungary, the Netherlands, India, and Iceland
Hillekens, J., Buist, K. L., Horváth, L. O., Koper, N., Ólafsdóttir, J., Karkdijk, E. M., & Balázs, J. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12667 · Cited by 18
Neurocognitive functioning of children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities and psychiatric disorders: profile characteristics and predictors of behavioural problems
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“…and externalising problems in this particular group of children may emerge due to a mismatch between the support needs and adaptations these children need arising from their diminished processing capacity, and the inadequacy of the environment to compensate for this vulnerability (Baker et al .”
Child-based treatment of oppositional defiant disorder: mediating effects on parental depression, anxiety and stress
Katzmann, J., Döpfner, M., & Görtz‐Dorten, A. (2018) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1181-5 · Cited by 20
Depressive Symptoms in Adults With Mild to Moderate Intellectual Disability and Their Relation to Maternal Well‐Being
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The Influence of Children's Cognitive Delay and Behavior Problems on Maternal Depression
Cheng, E. R., Palta, M., Poehlmann, J., & Witt, W. P. (2015) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.06.003 · Cited by 16
“Bidirectional effects of children’s behavior on maternal depression and the effects of maternal depression on children’s behavior seem likely and have been noted in studies of maternal stress and child behavior.(18,51-53) Determining the extent to which these relationships are mutually influential, mother-driven, chil…”
Disadvantage, discrimination, and despair: Parental experiences of caring for children with disability in Bangladesh
Hussain, M. M., & Raihan, M. M. H. (2022) · Asian Social Work and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/aswp.12249 · Cited by 16
Coping strategies in parents of children with disabilities: A case‐control study
Alós, F. J., García, A. G., & Maldonado, M. Á. (2022) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2701 · Cited by 24
“…investigations have pointed out that families of children with ASD suffer higher levels of stress in comparison to families that are responsible for children with other types of disabilities (Baker et al., 2003; Baker et al., 2005; Kasari & Sigman, 1997; Tomanik et al., 2004; Wolf et al., 1989).”
Background
Longitudinal Correlates of Maternal Depression Among Mothers of Children With or Without Intellectual Disability
Zeedyk, S. M., & Blacher, J. (2017) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-122.5.374 · Cited by 19
“Thus, the present study utilized the initial dataset reported in Baker et al. (2005), but extended this work by considering optimism longitudinally as a correlate of change in depressive symptoms across a much longer span, from child ages 3 to 13.”
MethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Parent Stress in a Randomized Clinical Trial of Atomoxetine and Parent Training for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Lecavalier, L., Pan, X. J., Smith, T. H., Handen, B. L., Arnold, L. E., Silverman, L. B., Tumuluru, R. V., Hollway, J. A., & Aman, M. G. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3345-4 · Cited by 18
“stress seems exacerbated by the presence of comorbid externalizing behavior problems (Baker et al. 2003; Lecavalier et al. 2006).”
Agreement between structured descriptive assessments and functional analyses conducted over a telehealth system.
Martens, B. K., Baxter, E. L., McComas, J. J., Sallade, S. J., Kester, J. S., Caamano, M., Dimian, A. F., Simacek, J. J., & Pennington, B. (2019) · Behavior Analysis Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/bar0000153 · Cited by 16
“The absence of such services can lead to more restrictive school and residential placements (Bierman, Kalvin, & Heinrichs, 2015), increased peer rejection (Ladd & TroopGordon, 2003), and higher levels of parental stress (Baker et al., 2003).”
Background
Relationship between parenting stress and children's behavioral characteristics in Japan
Tokunaga, A., Iwanaga, R., Yamanishi, Y., Higashionna, T., Tanaka, K., Nakane, H., & Tanaka, G. (2019) · Pediatrics International · doi:10.1111/ped.13876 · Cited by 21
Maternal postpartum stress and toddler developmental delays: Results from a multisite study of racially diverse families
Schmeer, K. K., Guardino, C. M., Irwin, J. L., Ramey, S. L., Shalowitz, M. U., & Schetter, C. D. (2019) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21871 · Cited by 17
“Thus, some of the associations found in the present study may be due to bidirectional process whereby stress affects developmental delays, and delays affect stress over time (Baker et al., 2003).”
Poverty and the mental health of families with a child with intellectual disabilities
Hatton, C., & Emerson, E. (2009) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.mppsy.2009.08.001 · Cited by 16
Seeking to prevent residential care for young people with intellectual disabilities and challenging behaviour: examples and early outcomes from the Ealing ITSBS
Reid, C., Sholl, C., & Gore, N. J. (2013) · Tizard Learning Disability Review · doi:10.1108/tldr-01-2013-0003 · Cited by 16

Authors: Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., & Low, C.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
University of California, Riverside (US)
Pennsylvania State University (US)
Corresponding author: Baker, B. L.
ORCID: Baker, B. L.
McIntyre, L. L.
Crnic, K.
Venue: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2003-05
Volume: 47
Issue: 4-5
Pages: 217-230
ISSN: 0964-2633 (ISSN-L)
1365-2788
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x
OpenAlex: W2154865829
Cited by: 930
References: 60
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 41
FWCI: 19.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 21 d)
Locations: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD34879-1459, R01HD034879)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: developmental delay, intellectual disability, preschool children, behavioral problems, parental stress, longitudinal stability, transactional model, early intervention
MeSH terms: Adult, Child Behavior Disorders, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Parents, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress, Psychological, Parenting

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

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