Cited by 930Family and Disability Support ResearchDown syndrome and intellectual disability researchChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., Low, C.·2003·Journal of Intellectual Disability Research

DOI 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x

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Abstract

Background Children with intellectual disability are at heightened risk for behaviour problems and diagnosed mental disorder. Methods The present authors studied the early manifestation and continuity of problem behaviours in 205 pre‐school children with and without developmental delays. Results Behaviour problems were quite stable over the year from age 36–48 months. Children with developmental delays were rated higher on behaviour problems than their non‐delayed peers, and were three times as likely to score in the clinical range. Mothers and fathers showed high agreement in their rating of child problems, especially in the delayed group. Parenting stress was also higher in the delayed group, but was related to the extent of behaviour problems rather than to the child's developmental delay. Conclusions Over time, a transactional model fit the relationship between parenting stress and behaviour problems: high parenting stress contributed to a worsening in child behaviour problems over time, and high child behaviour problems contributed to a worsening in parenting stress. Findings for mothers and fathers were quite similar.

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Beck, A., Hastings, R. P., Daley, D., & Stevenson, J. (2004) · Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability · doi:10.1080/13668250400014509 · Cited by 143
“In a pre-school sample, Baker et al. (2003) showed that behaviour problems and not the child’s cognitive level explained additional variance in maternal stress after controlling for stress scores from one year previously.”
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“Relative to their typically developing peers, these children enter school with more behavior problems (e.g. Baker et al., 2003), more negative parent-child interactions (e.g. Floyd & Phillippe, 1993), and difficulties with emotional and behavioral regulation (Wilson, 1999), each of which may put…”
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The Experiences of Parents During Diagnosis and Forward Planning for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Keenan, M., Dillenburger, K., Doherty, A., Byrne, T., & Gallagher, S. M. (2010) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/j.1468-3148.2010.00555.x · Cited by 158
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Eisenhower, A., Baker, B. L., & Blacher, J. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.09.033 · Cited by 140
“Moreover, the relation between child behavior problems and family adjustment is often transactional (Baker et al., 2003; Sameroff & Chandler, 1975).”
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Firth, I., & Dryer, R. (2013) · Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability · doi:10.3109/13668250.2013.773964 · Cited by 168
Psychological variables as correlates of adjustment in mothers of children with intellectual disabilities: cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships.
Lloyd, T., & Hastings, R. P. (2008) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2007.00974.x · Cited by 132
Predicting maternal parenting stress in middle childhood: the roles of child intellectual status, behaviour problems and social skills
Neece, C. L., & Baker, B. L. (2008) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2008.01071.x · Cited by 131
“This is inconsistent with previous research, showing that the relationship between child intellectual status and parenting stress is accounted for by child behaviour problems (i.e. Baker et al. 2003; Beck et al. 2004).”
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Psychological well-being of caregivers of children with intellectual disabilities: Using parental stress as a mediating factor
Cramm, J. M., & Nieboer, A. P. (2011) · Journal of Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1177/1744629511410922 · Cited by 131
“…include the child’s functional level (behavioral problems, speaking skills), level of dependence (mobility, ability to wash and dress) and the level of physical pain (Baker et al., 2003; Blacher and McIntyre, 2006; Pearlin et al., 1990; Raina et al., 2004; Wallander et al., 1989a; 1989b).”
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Marital Quality and Psychological Adjustment Among Mothers of Children with ASD: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Relationships
Benson, P. R., & Kersh, J. E. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1198-9 · Cited by 131
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Gallagher, S. M., Phillips, A. C., & Carroll, D. (2009) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsp093 · Cited by 138
“…is now reasonable consensus that problematic and challenging behaviors are a main source of stress for parents of children with developmental disabilities (Baker et al., 2003; Blacher & McIntyre, 2006; Floyd & Gallagher, 1997; Hastings, Daley, Burns, & Beck, 2006).”
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“, 2005), while parents of children with developmental disorders, such as cerebral palsy (CP), autism, and intellectual disabilities, tend to suffer from higher parenting stress (Baker et al., 2003; Davis and Carter, 2008; Estes et al., 2009; Glenn et al., 2009; Hassall et al., 2005).”
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“Previous research has illustrated the reciprocal and mutually amplifying nature of children’s behavior problems and parental stress (Donenberg and Baker 1993; Baker et al. 2003).”
Adapting Webster‐Stratton's incredible years parent training for children with developmental delay: findings from a treatment group only study
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“Baker et al. (2003) suggested a bi-directional relationship between parenting stress and child behaviour problems over time in families with young children with developmental problems.”
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“There is also a mounting body of research documenting higher levels of stress among parents of children with developmental problems than parents with typically developing children.(29,30) These higher levels of stress do not appear to be transient perturbations in parental well-being, but rather are fairly chronic and…”
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Self-citation
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Crnic, K. A., Neece, C. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., & Baker, B. L. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12740 · Cited by 138
“The increased level of behavior problems is especially salient for families and children with ID given the evidence that behavior problems in children with ID may be more predictive of later child and family functioning than are cognitive abilities (Baker et al., 2003).”
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“…studies have described the negative impacts of developmental delays in children, including emotional, behavioural and health problems later in life [1, 2], difficulties in parental child care and the parent-child relationship [3, 4], educational achievement [4, 5] and economic impacts on the…”
Families and intellectual disability
Blacher, J., Neece, C. L., & Paczkowski, E. A. (2005) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000179488.92885.e8 · Cited by 114
Self-citation
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Minnes, P., Perry, A., & Weiss, J. A. (2014) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12160 · Cited by 114
Stability, Change, and Correlates of the Peer Relationships of Young Children With Mild Developmental Delays
Guralnick, M. J., Hammond, M. A., Connor, R. T., & Neville, B. (2006) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00872.x · Cited by 114
“Recent research indicates that about 25% of children with developmental delays within the cognitive range of those in our sample are likely to exhibit clinically significant behavior problems and that there is considerable continuity over time (Baker, Blacher, Crnic, & Edelbrock, 2002; Baker et al., 2003).”
Background
Sibling Adjustment and Maternal Well-Being: An Examination of Families With and Without a Child With an Autism Spectrum Disorder
Quintero, N., & McIntyre, L. L. (2010) · Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/1088357609350367 · Cited by 113
“The presence of child maladaptive behavior has been demonstrated to greatly affect parenting stress and well being (Baker et al., 2003; Lecavalier, Leone, & Wiltz, 2006) and may affect sibling adjustment.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
Parenting Children With Borderline Intellectual Functioning: A Unique Risk Population
Fenning, R. M., Baker, J. K., Baker, B. L., & Crnic, K. A. (2007) · American Journal on Mental Retardation · doi:10.1352/0895-8017(2007)112[107:pcwbif]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 111
“Method Overview The current study was part of an ongoing, longitudinal (age 3 to 9 years) investigation of child and family factors thought to relate to the development of psychopathology among children with a range of cognitive abilities (Baker et al., 2002; Baker et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Parents of children with and without intellectual disability: couple relationship and individual well‐being
Norlin, D., & Broberg, M. (2012) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01564.x · Cited by 109
Coping and care-related stress in parents of a child with autism spectrum disorder
Shepherd, D., Landon, J., Taylor, S., & Goedeke, S. (2018) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2018.1442614 · Cited by 132
“, 2006), producing a “mutually escalating effect” whereby parental stress elicits further problem behaviors, which in turn induces further stress (Baker et al., 2003; Benson & Karlof, 2009). The autism spectrum is typically characterized by four core symptoms: restricted and or ritualized behaviors, language difficult…”
BackgroundInfluential
Trajectories of Stress among Parents of Children with Disabilities: A Dyadic Analysis
Woodman, A. C. (2014) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12049 · Cited by 102
“fathers, lending further support to the salience of behavior problems to parental well-being (Baker et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMethod
Psychological acceptance mediates the impact of the behaviour problems of children with intellectual disability on fathers' psychological adjustment.
MacDonald, E. E., Hastings, R. P., & Fitzsimons, E. (2010) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/j.1468-3148.2009.00546.x · Cited by 101
Intervention and Support for Siblings of Youth with Developmental Disabilities: A Systematic Review
Tudor, M. E., & Lerner, M. D. (2014) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-014-0175-1 · Cited by 113
“…not reflect a proposed homogeneity across diagnostic groups or the associated sibling functioning thereof. stressed than mothers of TD children (Baker et al. 2003), which is associated with child problem behavior (e.g., Baker et al. 2002; Eisenhower et al. 2005; Lecavalier et al. 2006; Osborne…”
Background
Social support, coping, and positive perceptions as potential protective factors for the well-being of mothers of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities
Halstead, E. J., Griffith, G. M., & Hastings, R. P. (2017) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2017.1329192 · Cited by 99

Authors: Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., & Low, C.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
University of California, Riverside (US)
Pennsylvania State University (US)
Corresponding author: Baker, B. L.
ORCID: Baker, B. L.
McIntyre, L. L.
Crnic, K.
Venue: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2003-05
Volume: 47
Issue: 4-5
Pages: 217-230
ISSN: 0964-2633 (ISSN-L)
1365-2788
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x
OpenAlex: W2154865829
Cited by: 930
References: 60
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 41
FWCI: 19.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 21 d)
Locations: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD34879-1459, R01HD034879)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: developmental delay, intellectual disability, preschool children, behavioral problems, parental stress, longitudinal stability, transactional model, early intervention
MeSH terms: Adult, Child Behavior Disorders, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Parents, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress, Psychological, Parenting

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

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