Cited by 930Family and Disability Support ResearchDown syndrome and intellectual disability researchChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., Low, C.·2003·Journal of Intellectual Disability Research

DOI 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x

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Abstract

Background Children with intellectual disability are at heightened risk for behaviour problems and diagnosed mental disorder. Methods The present authors studied the early manifestation and continuity of problem behaviours in 205 pre‐school children with and without developmental delays. Results Behaviour problems were quite stable over the year from age 36–48 months. Children with developmental delays were rated higher on behaviour problems than their non‐delayed peers, and were three times as likely to score in the clinical range. Mothers and fathers showed high agreement in their rating of child problems, especially in the delayed group. Parenting stress was also higher in the delayed group, but was related to the extent of behaviour problems rather than to the child's developmental delay. Conclusions Over time, a transactional model fit the relationship between parenting stress and behaviour problems: high parenting stress contributed to a worsening in child behaviour problems over time, and high child behaviour problems contributed to a worsening in parenting stress. Findings for mothers and fathers were quite similar.

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“Research showed an increase in behavior problems in children with DD from 3 to 4 years (Baker et al., 2003), so it may be that increased behavior problems during this period contributed to increases in caregiver distress compared to associations at other time points.”
The Effect of Parenting Stress on Preschool Children's Problematic Behavior in Multicultural Families
Yin, C.-Y., & Jang, Y.-A. (2012) · The Korean Journal of Community Living Science · doi:10.7856/kjcls.2012.23.1.005 · Cited by 5
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Self-citation
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McIntyre, L. L., & Brown, M. (2013) · Issues in clinical child psychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6531-7_14 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
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“…ranging from cognitive development and theory of mind performance (e.g., Guajardo, Snyder, & Petersen, 2008) to security of attachment (Jarvis & Creasey, 1991), externalising behaviour, and behavioural problems (e.g., Baker et al., 2003; Moss, Rousseau, Parent, St-Laurent, & Saintonge, 1998).”
Background
Family-Based Practices to Promote Well-Being
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Self-citation
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“This finding also supports previous research that emphasized the negative correlation of parenting stress with children’s social competence (Anthony et al., 2005; Baker et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2020; Lohaus et al., 2018; Neece et al., 2012; Rothbaum & Weisz, 1994).”
Influential
Sibling Support and Perceived Daily Hassles in Latino and Non-Latino Families of Children with DD
Sanner, C. M., Benjamin, L. R., Eskander, C., McGregor, H. A., Preston, A. E., McIntyre, L. L., & Neece, C. L. (2023) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/10664807221151174 · Cited by 5
“…levels of parenting stress—a negative psychological response to the obligations of being a parent—compared to parents of children without DD, which has been primarily attributed to elevated behavior problems from their children with DD (Baker et al. 2003; Neece et al., 2012; Webster et al., 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The Role of Graduate Schools of Education in Training Autism Professionals to Work with Diverse Families
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Jacobs, É., & Nader‐Grosbois, N. (2020) · Journal of Education and Training Studies · doi:10.11114/jets.v8i6.4840 · Cited by 5
“Researches underlined a higher risk for children with IDs to display some externalized (Taylor, 2002) or internalized behavioral problems (Merrell & Holland, 1997; Thirion-Marissiaux & Nader-Grosbois, 2008), or even both (Baker et al., 2003; Dekker & Koot, 2003; Dekker, Koot, Ende, & Verhulst, 2002; Emerson, 2003; Nad…”
Background
Pre-Service Teachers Understanding of Problem Behavior.
Chitiyo, J., Chitiyo, A., & Dombek, D. (2020) · International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction · Cited by 5
Mothers' estimates of their preschool children and parenting stress
Willinger, U., Schaunig-Busch, I., Jantscher, S., Schmoeger, M., Loader, B., Kummer, C., & Peer, E. (2011) · Cited by 5
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Alcalá-Cerrillo, M., My works are correct, B. M. I. A. A. I. S. R. L. M. T. I. D. A.-M., García-Gil, M. Á., Adsuar, J. C., Vicente-Castro, F., Fernández-Solana, J., & Gonzalez-Bernal, J. J. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11010043 · Cited by 4
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taghavi, T., Ghadirian, F., Zahra, A. A., Nahiddokht, S., Fatemeh, N., & Soghrat, F. (2012) · The European Journal of Social & Behavioural Sciences · doi:10.15405/futureacademy/ejsbs(2301-2218).2012.2.9 · Cited by 4
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Long-Term Head Start Impacts on Cognitive Outcomes for Children With Disabilities
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“Children with disabilities have significant risk factors for poor cognitive and social emotional outcomes (Baker et al., 2003).”
Background
PlayConnections: Relationship-focussed Early Childhood Intervention Training for Allied Health Practitioners
Barfoot, J., Meredith, P. J., Ziviani, J. M., & Whittingham, K. (2021) · International Journal of Disability Development and Education · doi:10.1080/1034912x.2021.1955334 · Cited by 4
“This finding is promising given that children with developmental delays often have increased risk of behavioural and emotional difficulties (Baker et al., 2003).”
Background
The Relationship Among Problem-Solving, Coping Styles and Stress Levels of Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Typical Development
Gül, H., & Gür, Ç. (2022) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.11.3.1231 · Cited by 7
“Many studies in the literature report that parents of children with disabilities have higher stress scores or are more stressed compared to parents of children with typical development (Baker et al., 2003; Coetzee et al., 2018; Drogomyretska et al., 2020; Laurvick et al., 2006; Uğuz et al., 2004; Verma et al., 2017).”
Background
Caregiver-Implemented Interventions for Autistic Adolescents and Young Adults: A Systematic Literature Review
McGinnis, K., Gerow, S., Gregori, E. V., & Davis, T. N. (2022) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-022-09877-2 · Cited by 4
“There currently is insufficient support for families of aging autistic individuals; caregivers of autistic individuals report greater levels of stress, helplessness, and marital dissatisfaction compared to caregivers of typically developing individuals (Baker et al., 2003; Brown et al., 2019; Higgins et al., 2005; Pis…”
Background
Predictors in language proficiency of young children with presumed developmental language disorder within the setting of early language intervention
Vermeij, B. A. M., Wiefferink, C. H., Scholte, R. H. J., & Knoors, H. E. T. (2022) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2022.1011175 · Cited by 5
“This relation is supported by several studies (Baker et al., 2003; Neece et al., 2012).”
Result
The Relationship between Parental Stress and Child Conformity: The Mediating Role of Resilience
Li, H., Song, G., & Xiao, B. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2024.054545 · Cited by 5
Social determinants associated with mental health problems in youth with intellectual disability: a systematic literature review
Storm, M. M. C., van Eldik, W. M., Nooteboom, L. A., & Vermeiren, R. R. J. M. (2025) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-025-02794-7 · Cited by 4
“Ten studies–five cross-sectional and five longitudinal–consistently linked greater parental (di)stress to increased behavior problems in children with ID, with seven focusing on maternal distress [42, 57–62].”
Frühe psychische Auffälligkeiten bei Kindern mit schwerer geistiger Behinderung
Sarimski, K. (2011) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000089 · Cited by 4
Therapeutic Camps and Their Impact on the Family of Children with Special Health Care Needs: A Mixed Method Study
Lindsey, B. (2016) · Open Journal of Nursing · doi:10.4236/ojn.2016.69074 · Cited by 4
“, 2009; Meltzer & Johnson, 2007), result in a great strain on the family causing physical and emotional stress (Thomas & Price, 2011; Yantzi, Rosenberg, & NcKeever, 2007), increase somatic complaints (Sherman, 1995), and possibly lead to depressive symptoms (Baker et al., 2003; Sullivan-Bolyai, Sadler, Knafl, Gilliss,…”
Background
Present-day foreign directions of researches of risk factors of unlawful behavior among minors
Martynova, I. (2016) · Psychology and Law · doi:10.17759/psylaw.2016060204 · Cited by 4
The effects of sensory processing and behavior of toddlers on parent participation: A pilot study
DaLomba, E. J., Baxter, M. F., Fingerhut, P. E., & O’Donnell, A. (2017) · Journal of Occupational Therapy Schools & Early Intervention · doi:10.1080/19411243.2016.1257968 · Cited by 4
“…in the literature include both internalizing (directed toward the child’s internal self) and externalizing (directed toward the environment) behaviors at a level that suggest a need for professional intervention (Baker et al., 2003; Eisenhower, Baker, & Blacher, 2005; Lecavalier et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential

Authors: Baker, B. L., McIntyre, L. L., Blacher, J., Crnic, K., Edelbrock, C., & Low, C.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
University of California, Riverside (US)
Pennsylvania State University (US)
Corresponding author: Baker, B. L.
ORCID: Baker, B. L.
McIntyre, L. L.
Crnic, K.
Venue: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2003-05
Volume: 47
Issue: 4-5
Pages: 217-230
ISSN: 0964-2633 (ISSN-L)
1365-2788
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00484.x
OpenAlex: W2154865829
Cited by: 930
References: 60
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 41
FWCI: 19.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 21 d)
Locations: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD34879-1459, R01HD034879)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Down syndrome and intellectual disability research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: developmental delay, intellectual disability, preschool children, behavioral problems, parental stress, longitudinal stability, transactional model, early intervention
MeSH terms: Adult, Child Behavior Disorders, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Family, Female, Humans, Male, Parents, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress, Psychological, Parenting

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Pre‐school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

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