The DOI matches its Crossref record; 3 of the 3 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Racial Bias in Pulse Oximetry Measurement
Open accessOverview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Related work on pulse oximetry, which relies on the same optical principles, has also documented skin-pigmentation-linked measurement errors [14,15]”
From PPG-Based Heart Rate Accuracy in Hispanic Adults with Fitzpatrick III–V Skin Tones: An Evaluation of Body Composition and Skin-Tone Effects (2026) · cites this paper as [15]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Patients with darker skin pigmentation are more likely than patients with lighter skin color to have overestimated SpO2 readings”
From Impact of skin pigmentation on pulse oximetry blood oxygenation and wearable pulse rate accuracy: systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as [11]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“leading to lower hospital admission; higher occult hypoxemia; and delayed or no access to dexamethasone, therapeutic oxygen, and COVID-19 therapies, resulting in increased hospital readmission, organ dysfunction, and mortality [11-18].”
From Impact of skin pigmentation on pulse oximetry blood oxygenation and wearable pulse rate accuracy: systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as [11]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Results from a large study [17] that includes 1333 white patients and 276 black patients indicated that the incidence of hypoxemia can be 3 times higher among patients self-reported as Black vs White because the oxygen saturation readings of black patients tend to be overestimated at a low SpO2 range.”
From Investigating the accuracy of blood oxygen saturation measurements in common consumer smartwatches (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“For example, racial bias can lead to undetected hidden hypoxemia.”
From Investigating the accuracy of blood oxygen saturation measurements in common consumer smartwatches (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“As a result, Black patients are three times more likely to suffer from an occult hypoxemia that remains undetected by pulse oximeters compared with white patients.”
From Addressing bias in big data and AI for health care: A call for open science (2021) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“Imbalanced samples are a form of bias that the medical community has historically and still currently struggles to address [42].”
From Bias in medical AI: Implications for clinical decision-making (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“Bias in clinical parameters such as glomerular filtration rate, pulse oximetry (with undiagnosed hidden hypoxemia for historically underserved patients), 35 differences in ICU severity scoring 36 shape radiology data sets for machine learning through a cascade effect as they affect ordering patterns for medical images.”
From AI pitfalls and what not to do: mitigating bias in AI (2023) · cites this paper as [35]
In the citing paper
“At the same time, people of colour are consistently misclassified by health sensors such as oximeters as they were validated on predominantly white populations [191].”
From Human-centred artificial intelligence for mobile health sensing: challenges and opportunities (2023) · cites this paper as [191]
In the citing paper
“there is evidence that pulse oximeters also have increased error rates based on skin tone11,12”
From Response To: Investigating sources of inaccuracy in wearable optical heart rate sensors (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“Besides, they found overestimations in dark-skinned patients with an increased risk of occult hypoxemia [50].”
From Skin pigmentation influence on pulse oximetry accuracy: a systematic review and bibliometric analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [50]
In the citing paper
“An important finding of this study is that the probability of dark-skinned patients with SpO2 reading between 92% and 96% having an arterial oxygen saturation of less than 88% was 3 times higher (11.7%) than light-skinned patients (3.6%) with the same SpO2 measurement.”
From Skin pigmentation influence on pulse oximetry accuracy: a systematic review and bibliometric analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [50]
In the citing paper
“They conducted this study in two large cohorts at the University of Michigan Hospital comparing measurements of SpO2 and arterial blood gas of a sample of over 10,000 people with 14–20% of dark-skinned patients in both cohorts.”
From Skin pigmentation influence on pulse oximetry accuracy: a systematic review and bibliometric analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [50]
In the citing paper
“More recent studies have also revealed that dark skin pigmentation influences the accuracy and performance of pulse oximeters devices, resulting in overestimations [17,49,50,51,52,53] with increased incidence in the risk for occult hypoxemia (SO2<88% despite normal SpO2>92%) [54,55].”
From Skin pigmentation influence on pulse oximetry accuracy: a systematic review and bibliometric analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [50]
In the citing paper
“Recent studies have shown a positive bias in oxygen saturation measurements in patients with darkly pigmented skin, particularly under low saturation conditions.”
From Skin pigmentation influence on pulse oximetry accuracy: a systematic review and bibliometric analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [50]
In the citing paper
“and other subjective scales were employed in 13 studies (35.14%) [30,42,43,44,45,50,52,56,72,78,80,87,88].”
From Skin pigmentation influence on pulse oximetry accuracy: a systematic review and bibliometric analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [50]
In the citing paper
“Specifically, in the first cohort (n = 10,789), 11.4% Black patients had undetected hypoxemia (pulse oximetry > 92% and arterial oxygen saturation < 88%), compared to 3.6% white patients, and in the second cohort (n = 37,308), 17.0% Black patients had undetected hypoxemia, compared to 6.2% white patients.”
From Accuracy of heart rate measurement with wrist-worn wearable devices in various skin tones: a systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“A recent study by Sjoding et al. found that when compared to white patients, Black patients had a threefold increased frequency of undetected hypoxemia when using pulse oximeters [6].”
From Accuracy of heart rate measurement with wrist-worn wearable devices in various skin tones: a systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Specifically, in the first cohort (n = 10,789), 11.4% Black patients had undetected hypoxemia (pulse oximetry > 92% and arterial oxygen saturation < 88%), compared to 3.6% white patients, and in the second cohort (n = 37,308), 17.0% Black patients had undetected hypoxemia, compared to 6.2% white patients.”
From Accuracy of heart rate measurement with wrist-worn wearable devices in various skin tones: a systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“A racial discrepancy has been established in pulse oximeters, which rely on transmission PPG, a slightly different form of the technology.”
From Accuracy of heart rate measurement with wrist-worn wearable devices in various skin tones: a systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“Results showed people described as Black had ‘nearly three times the frequency of occult hypoxemia that was not detected by pulse oximetry’ as those described as White [7].”
From The effects of skin pigmentation on the accuracy of pulse oximetry in measuring oxygen saturation: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [7]
In the citing paper
“Two recent diagnostic studies provide evidence on clinical implications resulting from the bias in pulse oximetry for blood oxygen saturation levels [7, 57].”
From The effects of skin pigmentation on the accuracy of pulse oximetry in measuring oxygen saturation: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [7]
In the citing paper
“At least two studies used diagnostic accuracy design and only presented proportions of participants with specific ranges of SpO2 in relation to specific SaO2 values, again rather than SpO2 and SaO2 data [7, 57].”
From The effects of skin pigmentation on the accuracy of pulse oximetry in measuring oxygen saturation: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [7]
In the citing paper
“In these studies, people described as Black had a higher risk of ‘occult hypoxemia that was not detected by pulse oximetry’ compared with those described as White [7].”
From The effects of skin pigmentation on the accuracy of pulse oximetry in measuring oxygen saturation: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [7]
In the citing paper
“Racial bias has been observed in the measurement of oxygen saturation level by pulse oximetry devices.”
From Unlocking Tomorrow’s Health Care: Expanding the Clinical Scope of Wearables by Applying Artificial Intelligence (2024) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“Because of the greater presence of melanin, Black patients have falsely elevated peripheral oxygen saturation detected via pulse oximetry compared with arterial oxygen saturation measured in arterial blood gas.48”
From Unlocking Tomorrow’s Health Care: Expanding the Clinical Scope of Wearables by Applying Artificial Intelligence (2024) · cites this paper as [48]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Pollard, T. J., Johnson, A. E. W., Raffa, J. D., Celi, L. A., Mark, R. G., & Badawi, O. (2018) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.178 · Cited by 1,993
Effects of skin pigmentation on pulse oximeter accuracy at low saturation
Bickler, P. E., Feiner, J. R., & Severinghaus, J. W. (2005) · Anesthesiology · doi:10.1097/00000542-200504000-00004 · Cited by 427
Four Types of Pulse Oximeters Accurately Detect Hypoxia during Low Perfusion and Motion
Louie, A., Feiner, J. R., Bickler, P. E., Rhodes, L., Bernstein, M., & Lucero, J. (2018) · Anesthesiology · doi:10.1097/aln.0000000000002002 · Cited by 106
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Moran-Thomas A. How a popular medical device encodes racial bias. Boston Review. August 5 2020 (http://bostonreview.net/science-nature-race/amy-moran-thomas-how-popular-medical-device-encodes-racial-bias).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 1,000
Health equity: A concept analysis
Lewis, C. L., Yan, Q., Williams, M. Y., Apen, L. V., Crawford, C. L., Morse, L. M., Valdez, A. M., Alexander, G. R., Grant, E. J., Valderama‐Wallace, C., et al. (2023) · Nursing Outlook · doi:10.1016/j.outlook.2023.102032 · Cited by 49
A systematic review of fairness in machine learning
Rabonato, R. T., & Berton, L. (2024) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-024-00577-5 · Cited by 48
Diagnosis and Management of Acute Respiratory Failure
Lagina, M., & Valley, T. S. (2024) · Critical Care Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.ccc.2024.01.002 · Cited by 53
Self-citationMelanometry for objective evaluation of skin pigmentation in pulse oximetry studies
Vasudevan, S., Vogt, W. C., Weininger, S., & Pfefer, T. J. (2024) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-024-00550-7 · Cited by 46
Wiles, M. D., El‐Nayal, A., Elton, G., Malaj, M., Winterbottom, J., Gillies, C., Moppett, I. K., & Bauchmuller, K. (2022) · Anaesthesia · doi:10.1111/anae.15581 · Cited by 45
Disparity dashboards: an evaluation of the literature and framework for health equity improvement
Gallifant, J., Kistler, E. A., Nakayama, L. F., Zera, C., Kripalani, S. B., Ntatin, A., Fernández, L., Bates, D. W., Dankwa‐Mullan, I., & Celi, L. A. (2023) · The Lancet Digital Health · doi:10.1016/s2589-7500(23)00150-4 · Cited by 45
Demographic Imbalances Resulting From the Bring-Your-Own-Device Study Design
Cho, P. J., Yi, J., Ho, E., Shandhi, M. M. H., Dinh, Y., Patil, A., Martin, L., Singh, G., Bent, B., Ginsburg, G. S., et al. (2021) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/29510 · Cited by 45
Artificial and human intelligence for early identification of neonatal sepsis
Sullivan, B. A., Kausch, S. L., & Fairchild, K. D. (2022) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-022-02274-7 · Cited by 43
Leeb, G., Auchus, I., Law, T. J., Bickler, P. E., Feiner, J., Hashi, S., Monk, E. P., Igaga, E. N., Bernstein, M., Chou, Y., et al. (2024) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2024.105051 · Cited by 45
Young, P. J., Arabi, Y. M., Bagshaw, S. M., Bellomo, R., Fujii, T., Haniffa, R., Hodgson, C. L., Vijayaraghavan, B. K. T., Litton, E., Mackle, D., et al. (2022) · Critical Care and Resuscitation · doi:10.51893/2022.2.oa4 · Cited by 42
Accuracy of Multiple Pulse Oximeters in Stable Critically Ill Patients
Blanchet, M.-A., Mercier, G., Delobel, A., Nayet, E., Bouchard, P.-A., Simard, S., L’Her, E., Branson, R. D., & Lellouche, F. (2023) · Respiratory Care · doi:10.4187/respcare.10582 · Cited by 42
Tolbert, T. M., Schmickl, C. N., Gell, L. K., Keenan, B. T., Mazzotti, D. R., de Beeck, S. O., Osman, A. M., Peña-Orbea, C., Sands, S. A., Sofer, T., et al. (2025) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.202507-1574st · Cited by 44
Baumert, M., Cowie, M., Redline, S. S., Mehra, R., Arzt, M. E., Pépin, J., & Linz, D. (2022) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsac183 · Cited by 42
Bhavani, S. V., Wiley, Z., Verhoef, P. A., Coopersmith, C. M., & Ofotokun, I. (2022) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2022.12290 · Cited by 42
Prospective validation of smartphone-based heart rate and respiratory rate measurement algorithms
Bae, S., Borac, S., Emre, Y., Wang, J., Wu, J., Kashyap, M., Kang, S., Chen, L., Moran, M., Cannon, J., et al. (2022) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-022-00102-x · Cited by 41
The Importance of Data Quality Control in Using Fitbit Device Data From the Research Program
Lederer, L. E., Breton, A., Jeong, H., Master, H., Roghanizad, A. R., & Dunn, J. (2023) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/45103 · Cited by 42
Walk, talk, think, see and feel: harnessing the power of digital biomarkers in healthcare
Powell, D. (2024) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-024-01023-w · Cited by 41
Generative Artificial Intelligence and Large Language Models in Primary Care Medical Education
Parente, D. J. (2024) · Family Medicine · doi:10.22454/fammed.2024.775525 · Cited by 40
de Hond, A., van Buchem, M. M., & Hernandez‐Boussard, T. (2022) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1093/jamia/ocac156 · Cited by 40
Tribute to Dr. Takuo Aoyagi, inventor of pulse oximetry
Miyasaka, K., Shelley, K. H., Takahashi, S., KUBOTA, H., Ito, K., Yoshiya, I., Yamanishi, A., Cooper, J. B., Steward, D. J., Nishida, H., et al. (2021) · Journal of Anesthesia · doi:10.1007/s00540-021-02967-z · Cited by 40
Putting explainable AI in context: institutional explanations for medical AI
Theunissen, M., & Browning, J. (2022) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-022-09649-8 · Cited by 42
A survey of skin tone assessment in prospective research
Weir, V. R., Dempsey, K., Gichoya, J. W., Rotemberg, V. M., & Wong, A.-K. I. (2024) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-024-01176-8 · Cited by 39
Considerations for Conducting Bring Your Own “Device” (BYOD) Clinical Studies
Demanuele, C., Lokker, C., Jhaveri, K. A., Tuttle, P. G., Sezgın, E., Geoghegan, C., Zou, K. H., Izmailova, E. S., & Carthy, M. M. (2022) · Digital Biomarkers · doi:10.1159/000525080 · Cited by 41
Johnson, E. A., Dudding, K. M., & Carrington, J. M. (2023) · Nursing Inquiry · doi:10.1111/nin.12583 · Cited by 40
Remote Photoplethysmography for Heart Rate and Blood Oxygenation Measurement: A Review
Pirzada, P., Wilde, A., & Harris‐Birtill, D. (2024) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2024.3405414 · Cited by 38
Nazir, A., Nazir, A., Jamal, M. S. W., Sadiq, S. U. R., Aman, S., Mustapha, M. J., Lawal, S. O., Abdulkareem, M. O., & Mustapha, F. B. (2025) · Health Science Reports · doi:10.1002/hsr2.71486 · Cited by 42
Waight, N., Kayumova, S., Tripp, J. N., & Achilova, F. (2022) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-022-00328-0 · Cited by 38
Skin colour affects the accuracy of medical oxygen sensors
Keller, M. D., Harrison-Smith, B., Patil, C., & Arefin, M. S. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-022-03161-1 · Cited by 38
Groom, L. L., Schoenthaler, A., Mann, D. M., & Brody, A. A. (2024) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000509 · Cited by 39
Barnett, A., Beasley, R. W., Buchan, C., Chien, J., Farah, C. S., King, G. G., McDonald, C. F., Miller, B., Munsif, M., Psirides, A. J., et al. (2022) · Respirology · doi:10.1111/resp.14218 · Cited by 38
Emerging Ethical Considerations for the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Ophthalmology
Evans, N. G., Wenner, D. M., Cohen, I. G., Purves, D., Chiang, M. F., Ting, D. S. W., & Lee, A. (2022) · Ophthalmology Science · doi:10.1016/j.xops.2022.100141 · Cited by 37
Karikari, T. K. (2022) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-215730 · Cited by 37
Racial and Ethnic Bias in Pulse Oximetry and Clinical Outcomes
Valbuena, V. S. M., Merchant, R. M., & Hough, C. L. (2022) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2022.1903 · Cited by 37
Blood pressure stratification using photoplethysmography and light gradient boosting machine
Hu, X., Yin, S., Zhang, X., Menon, C., Fang, C., Chen, Z., Elgendi, M., & Liang, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1072273 · Cited by 38
Singh, S., Bennett, M. R., Chen, C., Shin, S., Ghanbari, H., & Nelson, B. W. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/62769 · Cited by 36
“…with lighter skin color to have overestimated SpO 2 readings, leading to lower hospital admission; higher occult hypoxemia; and delayed or no access to dexamethasone, therapeutic oxygen, and COVID-19 therapies, resulting in increased hospital readmission, organ dysfunction, and mortality [11-18].”
InfluentialInvestigating the accuracy of blood oxygen saturation measurements in common consumer smartwatches
Jiang, Y., Spies, C., Magin, J., Bhosai, S. J., Snyder, L., & Dunn, J. (2023) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000296 · Cited by 36
“Results from a large study [17] that includes 1333 white patients and 276 black patients indicated that the incidence of hypoxemia can be 3 times higher among patients self-reported as Black vs White because the oxygen saturation readings of black patients tend to be overestimated at a low SpO2 range.”
BackgroundGlobal Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease 2023 Report: GOLD Executive Summary
Agustí, A. G. N., Celli, B. R., Criner, G. J., Halpin, D. M. G., Anzueto, A., Barnes, P. J., Bourbeau, J., Han, M. K., Martínez, F. J., de, M. M., et al. (2023) · Respirology · doi:10.1111/resp.14486 · Cited by 39
Evaluating the Accuracy of Pulse Oximetry in Children According to Race
Ruppel, H., Makeneni, S., Faerber, J., Lane-Fall, M. B., Foglia, E. E., O'Byrne, M. L., & Bonafide, C. P. (2023) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2023.0071 · Cited by 36
Chesley, C. F., Lane-Fall, M. B., Panchanadam, V., Harhay, M. O., Wani, A. A., Mikkelsen, M. E., & Fuchs, B. D. (2022) · Respiratory Care · doi:10.4187/respcare.09769 · Cited by 38
Racial effects on Masimo pulse oximetry: a laboratory study
Barker, S. J., & Wilson, W. C. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing · doi:10.1007/s10877-022-00927-w · Cited by 36
Marvasti, T. B., Gao, Y., Murray, K. R., Hershman, S., McIntosh, C., & Moayedi, Y. (2024) · Canadian Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2024.07.009 · Cited by 35
Remote digital health technologies for improving the care of people with respiratory disorders
Dunn, J., Coravos, A., Fanarjian, M., Ginsburg, G. S., & Steinhubl, S. R. (2024) · The Lancet Digital Health · doi:10.1016/s2589-7500(23)00248-0 · Cited by 35
Non‐Invasive Photoacoustic Cerebrovascular Monitoring of Early‐Stage Ischemic Strokes In Vivo
Kim, J., Kweon, J. Y., Choi, S., Jeon, H., Sung, M., Gao, R., Liu, C., Kim, C., & Ahn, Y. J. (2024) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202409361 · Cited by 35
Heart rate detection by Fitbit ChargeHR™: A validation study versus portable polysomnography
Benedetti, D., Olcese, U., Frumento, P., Bazzani, A., Bruno, S., D’Ascanio, P., Maestri, M., Bonanni, E., & Faraguna, U. (2021) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13346 · Cited by 36
Using preregistration as a tool for transparent fNIRS study design
Schroeder, P. A., Artemenko, C., Kosie, J. E., Cockx, H., Stute, K., Pereira, J., Klein, F., & Mehler, D. M. A. (2023) · Neurophotonics · doi:10.1117/1.nph.10.2.023515 · Cited by 36
History and evolution of blood pressure measurement
Noh, S. A., Kim, H.-S., Kang, S., Yoon, C., Youn, T., & Chae, I. (2024) · Clinical Hypertension · doi:10.1186/s40885-024-00268-7 · Cited by 41
Yücel, M. A., Anderson, J. E., Rogers, D., Hajirahimi, P., Farzam, P. Y., Gao, Y., Kaplan, R. I., Braun, E. J., Mukadam, N., Duwadi, S., et al. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02274-7 · Cited by 34
Do Thresholds for Invasive Ventilation in Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure Exist? A Cohort Study
Yarnell, C. J., Johnson, A. E. W., Dam, T. A., Jonkman, A. H., Liu, K., Wunsch, H., Brochard, L. J., Celi, L. A., de Grooth, H., Elbers, P., et al. (2022) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.202206-1092oc · Cited by 36
COVID-19 Critical Illness: A Data-Driven Review
Ginestra, J. C., Mitchell, O. J. L., Anesi, G. L., & Christie, J. D. (2021) · Annual Review of Medicine · doi:10.1146/annurev-med-042420-110629 · Cited by 34
Ho, A. (2023) · doi:10.1093/med/9780197556269.001.0001 · Cited by 35
Effects of skin tone on photoacoustic imaging and oximetry
Else, T. R., Hacker, L., Gröhl, J., Bunce, E. V., Tao, R., & Bohndiek, S. E. (2023) · Journal of Biomedical Optics · doi:10.1117/1.jbo.29.s1.s11506 · Cited by 32
Challenges and Opportunities for Applying Wearable Technology to Sleep
Tobin, S. Y., Williams, P., Baron, K. G., Halliday, T. M., & Depner, C. M. (2021) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2021.07.002 · Cited by 34
Bécares, L., Shaw, R. J., Katikireddi, S. V., Irizar, P., Amele, S., Kapadia, D., Nazroo, J. Y., & Taylor, H. F. W. (2022) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101150 · Cited by 32
3D‐Bioprinted Phantom with Human Skin Phototypes for Biomedical Optics
Yim, W., Zhou, J., Sasi, L., Zhao, J., Yeung, J., Cheng, Y., Jin, Z., Johnson, W., Xu, M., Palma‐Chavez, J., et al. (2022) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202206385 · Cited by 32
Assessing racial bias in type 2 diabetes risk prediction algorithms
Cronjé, H. T., Katsiferis, A., Elsenburg, L. K., Andersen, T. O., Rod, N. H., Nguyen, T., & Varga, T. V. (2023) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0001556 · Cited by 34
Can digital health democratize health care?
Hendl, T., & Shukla, A. (2024) · Bioethics · doi:10.1111/bioe.13266 · Cited by 31
FAIM: Fairness-aware interpretable modeling for trustworthy machine learning in healthcare
Liu, M., Ning, Y., Ke, Y., Shang, Y., Chakraborty, B., Ong, M. E. H., VAUGHAN, R. D., & Liu, N. (2024) · Patterns · doi:10.1016/j.patter.2024.101059 · Cited by 33
Multi-disciplinary fairness considerations in machine learning for clinical trials
Chien, I., Deliu, N., Turner, R. E., Weller, A., Villar, S. S., & Kilbertus, N. (2022) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3531146.3533154 · Cited by 35
WristO2: Reliable Peripheral Oxygen Saturation Readings from Wrist-Worn Pulse Oximeters
Phillips, C., Liaqat, D., Gabel, M., & de Lara, E. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops (PerCom Workshops) · doi:10.1109/percomworkshops51409.2021.9430986 · Cited by 31
Human-centred artificial intelligence for mobile health sensing: challenges and opportunities
Dang, T., Spathis, D., Ghosh, A., & Mascolo, C. (2023) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.230806 · Cited by 30
Artificial Intelligence in Endurance Sports: Metabolic, Recovery, and Nutritional Perspectives
Grivas, G. V., & Safari, K. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17203209 · Cited by 31
Respiratory Drive, Dyspnea, and Silent Hypoxemia: A Physiological Review in the Context of COVID-19
Kallet, R. H., Branson, R. D., & Lipnick, M. S. (2022) · Respiratory Care · doi:10.4187/respcare.10075 · Cited by 30
Sjoding, M. W., Iwashyna, T. J., & Valley, T. S. (2022) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.202209-1773ed · Cited by 29
Self-citationCabanas, A. M., Martín-Escudero, P., & Shelley, K. H. (2023) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.bja.2023.07.005 · Cited by 28
Racial and skin color mediated disparities in pulse oximetry in infants and young children
Sharma, M., Brown, A. W., Powell, N. M., Rajaram, N., Tong, L., Mourani, P. M., & Schootman, M. (2024) · Paediatric Respiratory Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2023.12.006 · Cited by 29
Ninety years of pulse oximetry: history, current status, and outlook
Quaresima, V., Ferrari, M., & Scholkmann, F. (2024) · Journal of Biomedical Optics · doi:10.1117/1.jbo.29.s3.s33307 · Cited by 29
European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2025 First Aid
Djärv, T., Rogers, J., Semeraro, F. F., Brädde, L., Cassan, P., Cimpoesu, D. C., van Goor, S., Klaassen, B., Laermans, J., Meyrán, D., et al. (2025) · Resuscitation · doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2025.110752 · Cited by 34
The Potential of Photoacoustic Imaging in Radiation Oncology
Lefebvre, T. L., Brown, E. L., Hacker, L., Else, T. R., Oraiopoulou, M., Tomaszewski, M. R., Jena, R., & Bohndiek, S. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2022.803777 · Cited by 28
Pulse Oximetry and Race in Critically Ill Adults
Seitz, K. P., Wang, L., Casey, J. D., Markus, S. A., Jackson, K. E., Qian, E. T., Self, W. H., Rice, T. W., & Semler, M. W. (2022) · Critical Care Explorations · doi:10.1097/cce.0000000000000758 · Cited by 28
A global perspective on data powering responsible AI solutions in health applications
Rudd, J., & Igbrude, C. (2023) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-023-00302-8 · Cited by 28
Skin Pigmentation and Pulse Oximeter Accuracy in the Intensive Care Unit: A Pilot Prospective Study
Fawzy, A., Ali, H., Dziedzic, P. H., Potu, N., Calvillo, E., Golden, S. H., Iwashyna, T. J., Suárez, J. I., Hager, D. N., & Garibaldi, B. T. (2024) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.202401-0036le · Cited by 28
Self-citationThe Use of Photoplethysmography in the Assessment of Mental Health: Scoping Review
Lyzwinski, L. N., Elgendi, M., & Menon, C. (2023) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/40163 · Cited by 29
Prospective clinical validation of the Empatica EmbracePlus wristband as a reflective pulse oximeter
Gerboni, G., Comunale, G., Chen, W. '., Taylor, J. L., Migliorini, M., Picard, R. W., Cruz, M. L., & Regalia, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2023.1258915 · Cited by 27
Minimizing bias when using artificial intelligence in critical care medicine
Ranard, B. L., Park, S., Jia, Y., Zhang, Y., Alwan, F. S., Celi, L. A., & Lusczek, E. R. (2024) · Journal of Critical Care · doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2024.154796 · Cited by 27
S3-Leitlinie Sauerstoff in der Akuttherapie beim Erwachsenen
Gottlieb, J., Capetian, P., Hamsen, U., Janssens, U., Karagiannidis, C., Kluge, S., König, M., Markewitz, A., Nothacker, M., Roiter, S., et al. (2021) · Pneumologie · doi:10.1055/a-1554-2625 · Cited by 27
Kyriacou, P. A., Charlton, P. H., Al-Halawani, R., & Shelley, K. H. (2022) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.bja.2022.03.011 · Cited by 27
Bangash, M. N., Hodson, J. A., Evison, F., Patel, J. M., Johnston, A. M., Gallier, S., Sapey, E., & Parekh, D. (2022) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101428 · Cited by 27
Improving child health through Big Data and data science
Vesoulis, Z. A., Husain, A. N., & Cole, F. S. (2022) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-022-02264-9 · Cited by 29
Radin, J. M., Quer, G., Jalili, M., Hamideh, D., & Steinhubl, S. R. (2021) · The Lancet Digital Health · doi:10.1016/s2589-7500(21)00064-9 · Cited by 28
Wiles, M. D., El‐Nayal, A., Elton, G., Malaj, M., Winterbottom, J., Gillies, C., Moppett, I. K., & Bauchmüller, K. (2022) · Anaesthesia · doi:10.1111/anae.15656 · Cited by 26
Bias Mitigation in Federated Learning for Edge Computing
Djebrouni, Y., Benarba, N., Touat, O., Rosa, P. D., Bouchenak, S., Bonifati, A., Felber, P. A., Marangozova‐Martin, V., & Schiavoni, V. (2023) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3631455 · Cited by 26
Kayarian, F. B., Patel, D., O'Brien, J. R., Schraft, E. K., & Gottlieb, M. A. (2024) · The American Journal of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2024.03.023 · Cited by 26
Conservative management of COVID-19 associated hypoxaemia
Voshaar, T., Stais, P., Köhler, D., & Dellweg, D. (2021) · ERJ Open Research · doi:10.1183/23120541.00026-2021 · Cited by 26
Rees, C. A., Hooli, S., King, C., McCollum, E. D., Colbourn, T., Lufesi, N., Mwansambo, C., Lazzerini, M., Madhi, S. A., Cutland, C., et al. (2021) · Journal of Global Health · doi:10.7189/jogh.11.04062 · Cited by 26
Social Justice in Nursing Education: A Way Forward
Roy, K., Hunt, K., Sakai, K., & Fletcher, K. (2022) · Journal of Nursing Education · doi:10.3928/01484834-20220602-05 · Cited by 27
Phosphorescent Microneedle Array for the Measurement of Oxygen Partial Pressure in Tissue
Müller, M., Cascales, J. P., Marks, H. L., Evers, M., Manstein, D., & Evans, C. L. (2022) · ACS Sensors · doi:10.1021/acssensors.2c01775 · Cited by 26
Rogerson, C. M., Hogan, A. H., Waldo, B., White, B. R., Carroll, C. L., & Shein, S. L. (2023) · Pediatric Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1097/pcc.0000000000003347 · Cited by 25
Health Equity Considerations in the Age of Artificial Intelligence
Budhu, J. A., Anderson, N., Branson, C. O., Dy-Hollins, M., Jiménez-Gómez, A., Nearing, K. I., Vélez, F. G. S., Staisch, J., Wabulya, A., & Mendizabal, A. (2025) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000214356 · Cited by 26
Oxygen Saturation Behavior by Pulse Oximetry in Female Athletes: Breaking Myths
Martín-Escudero, P., Cabanas, A. M., Fuentes, M. E., & Galindo-Canales, M. (2021) · Biosensors · doi:10.3390/bios11100391 · Cited by 25
Validity of the Childhood Asthma Control Test in diverse populations: A systematic review
Chu, F. M., Kappel, N., Akel, M., Press, V. G., Alexander, J. T., & Volerman, A. (2023) · Pediatric Pulmonology · doi:10.1002/ppul.26342 · Cited by 25
Reynolds, A., Vranic-Peters, M. J., Lai, A., Grayden, D. B., Cook, M. J., & Peterson, A. D. H. (2023) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/epi.17548 · Cited by 25
Shlobin, O. A., Shen, E., Wort, S. J., Piccari, L., Scandurra, J., Hassoun, P. M., Nikkho, S. M., & Nathan, S. D. (2024) · Pulmonary Circulation · doi:10.1002/pul2.12310 · Cited by 25
Melanin bias in pulse oximetry explained by light source spectral bandwidth
Bierman, A., Benner, K. J., & Rea, M. S. (2024) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.bja.2024.01.037 · Cited by 24
Identifying and mitigating algorithmic bias in the safety net
Mackin, S., Major, V. J., Chunara, R., & Newton-Dame, R. (2025) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01732-w · Cited by 24
Lee, M. J., Snell, L. B., Douthwaite, S. T., Fidler, S. J., Fitzgerald, N., Goodwin, L. C., Hamzah, L., Kulasegaram, R., Lawrence, S., Lwanga, J., et al. (2021) · HIV Medicine · doi:10.1111/hiv.13174 · Cited by 24
Countering Racial Bias in Computer Graphics Research
Kim, T., Rushmeier, H., Dorsey, J. O., Nowrouzezahrai, D., Syed, R., Jarosz, W., & Darke, A. M. (2022) · ACM SIGGRAPH Conference (SIGGRAPH) · doi:10.1145/3532836.3536263 · Cited by 24
Roozeman, J.-P., Mazzinari, G., Neto, A. S., Hollmann, M. W., Paulus, F., Schultz, M. J., Pisani, L., Algera, A. G., Boers, L. S., Bos, L. D. J., et al. (2021) · Journal of Critical Care · doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2021.11.009 · Cited by 24
Skin tone, confidence, and data quality of heart rate sensing in WearOS smartwatches
Ray, I., Liaqat, D., Gabel, M., & de Lara, E. (2021) · 2021 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops and other Affiliated Events (PerCom Workshops) · doi:10.1109/percomworkshops51409.2021.9431120 · Cited by 23
A Positionality Tool to Support Ethical Research and Inclusion in the Participatory Sciences
Cooper, C. B., Hunter, D. E. L., Archer, J.-M. J., Caballero-Gómez, H., Hawn, C., Johnson, V., Jenni, G. L., Jelks, N. O., Leggett, Z. H., Pandya, R. E., et al. (2024) · Citizen Science Theory and Practice · doi:10.5334/cstp.684 · Cited by 23
Pulse oximetry in primary care: factors affecting accuracy and interpretation
Silverston, P., Ferrari, M., & Quaresima, V. (2022) · British Journal of General Practice · doi:10.3399/bjgp22x718769 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Sjoding, M. W., Dickson, R. P., Iwashyna, T. J., Gay, S. E., & Valley, T. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Venue
- New England Journal of Medicine
- Publisher
- Massachusetts Medical Society
- Published
- 2020-12-17
- Volume
- 383
- Issue
- 25
- Pages
- 2477-2478
- ISSN
- 0028-4793 (ISSN-L)
- 1533-4406
- PMC
- PMC7808260
- OpenAlex
- W3111737151
- Cited by
- 1,114
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 191 · 2025: 182 · 2024: 193 · 2023: 227 · 2022: 209 · 2021: 109 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 42.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- New England Journal of Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Health Services Research and Development (IIR 17-045)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (K01 HL136687, K12 HL138039, K23 HL140165, R01 HL144599)
- U.S. National Library of Medicine (R01 LM013325)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Race, Genetics, and Society
- Keywords
- pulse oximetry, racial bias, skin pigmentation, oxygen saturation measurement, measurement error, racial disparities in health care
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Hypoxia, Black or African American, Female, Humans, Male, Oximetry, Oxygen, White People, Organ Dysfunction Scores, Racism
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
