Food-frequency questionnaires: a review of their design, validation and utilisation
Open accessAbstract
A review of the literature concerning the design, utilisation and validation of food-frequency questionnaires (FFQ) has been carried out using a semi-systematic approach to obtaining, reviewing and extracting data from articles. Databases were searched from 1980 to 1999. The present review identified 227 validation (from 1980 to September 1999) and 164 utilisation (for 1998 only) studies. A number of design issues have been evaluated through the present review. These include: the need to consider how portion sizes have been described, self-defined giving higher mean correlations; how an FFQ was administered, interviewer-administered giving higher mean correlations for some nutrients; how many items to include on an FFQ, those with the largest number of items having higher correlations. Validation techniques were described. Most validation studies involved comparing an FFQ against another dietary assessment method; only 19 % compared an FFQ to a biomarker. Measurement differences were most commonly assessed by correlation coefficients as opposed to other more appropriate methods. Mean correlation coefficients were highest for Ca and fat, and lowest for vitamin A and vegetables. The utilisation studies showed that FFQ were most commonly used in cross-sectional surveys, with ninety-three of the FFQ being designed to be disease-specific. The present review results were presented to a group of experts and a consensus arrived at concerning the development, validation and use of FFQ. Recommendations derived from the consensus arising from the literature review are presented as an appendix to the present paper.
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FFQ are generally validated against existing dietary assessment methods, such as WFR.
“FFQ are generally validated against existing dietary assessment methods, such as WFR [19], and several FFQ have been validated for electronic and online use recently [14,20-22].”
From Online dietary intake estimation: reproducibility and validity of the Food4Me Food frequency questionnaire against a 4-day weighed food record (2014) · cites this paper as [19]
Use of tools that allow participants to report their own portion sizes tend to report higher correlation coefficients between repeat administrations.
“Use of tools that allow participants to report their own portion sizes tend to report higher correlation coefficients between repeat administrations [19].”
From Online dietary intake estimation: reproducibility and validity of the Food4Me Food frequency questionnaire against a 4-day weighed food record (2014) · cites this paper as [19]
The average reported correlation coefficient for crude total fat intake using FFQs repeated after 1 month or less was .68, which compares very favorably with the correlation coefficient of .81 in the present study, showing above-average performance for the Food4Me FFQ.
“The average reported correlation coefficient for crude total fat intake using FFQs repeated after 1 month or less was .68 [19], which compares very favorably with the correlation coefficient of .81 in the present study, showing above-average performance for the Food4Me FFQ.”
From Online dietary intake estimation: reproducibility and validity of the Food4Me Food frequency questionnaire against a 4-day weighed food record (2014) · cites this paper as [19]
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Kobayashi, S., Murakami, K., Sasaki, S., Okubo, H., Hirota, N., Notsu, A., Fukui, M., & Date, C. (2011) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980011000504 · Cited by 882 · see citing works
Aznar, L. A. M., Ral, P. C., Anta, R. M. O., Martín, J. J. D., Baladia, E., Basulto, J., Serrat, S. B., Altaba, I. I., López-Sobaler, A. M., Manera, M., et al. (2013) · PubMed · doi:10.3305/nutrhosp.v28in06.6691 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Reproducibility and comparative validity of a food frequency questionnaire for Australian adults
Collins, C. E., Boggess, M. M., Watson, J. F., Guest, M., Duncanson, K., Pezdirc, K., Rollo, M., Hutchesson, M. J., & Burrows, T. L. (2014) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2013.09.015 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Mulligan, A. A., Luben, R., Bhaniani, A., Parry-Smith, D. J., O’Connor, L., Khawaja, A. P., Forouhi, N. G., & Khaw, K. (2014) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004503 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
“We have not addressed or discussed common FFQ issues, such as the number of items in a food list or the use of a single average portion size, as these are not the focus of this paper and have been reviewed previously.(24) 25 It is anticipated that future updates of FETA might contain a number of improvements and overc…”
MethodStreppel, M. T., de Vries, J. H. M., Meijboom, S., Beekman, M., de Craen, A. J. M., Slagboom, P. E., & Feskens, E. J. M. (2013) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-12-75 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“Therefore, validation studies should be performed to examine the degree to which the FFQ agrees with the subjects’ true intake [3].”
BackgroundResultWatson, J., Collins, C. E., Sibbritt, D. W., Dibley, M. J., & Garg, M. L. (2009) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-6-62 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Climate change and the hydropower sector: A global review
Wasti, A., Ray, P. A., Wi, S., Folch, C., Ubierna, M., & Karki, P. (2022) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change · doi:10.1002/wcc.757 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Fallaize, R., Forster, H., Macready, A. L., Walsh, M. C., Mathers, J. C., Brennan, L., Gibney, E. R., Gibney, M. J., & Lovegrove, J. A. (2014) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.3355 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
“68 [19], which compares very favorably with the correlation coefficient of .”
Measuring dietary intake in children and adolescents in the context of overweight and obesity
Collins, C. E., Watson, J., & Burrows, T. L. (2009) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.241 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Collins, C. E., Burrows, T. L., Rollo, M. E., Boggess, M. M., Watson, J., Guest, M., Duncanson, K., Pezdirc, K., & Hutchesson, M. (2015) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu7020785 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“A sample size of at least 50 is desirable for each demographic group [32], and ideally between 100 and 200 participants [33].”
BackgroundSugar-sweetened beverages and dental caries in adults: a 4-year prospective study.
Bernabé, E., Vehkalahti, M., Sheiham, A., Aromaa, A., & Suominen, A. (2014) · E -journal of dentistry · doi:10.1016/j.jdent.2014.04.011 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Lanfer, A., Hebestreit, A., Ahrens, W., Krogh, V., Sieri, S., Lissner, L., Eiben, G., Siani, A., Huybrechts, I., Loit, H. ‐., et al. (2011) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2011.36 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Added Sugars Intake Across the Distribution of US Children and Adult Consumers: 1977-2012
Powell, E. S., Smith-Taillie, L. P., & Popkin, B. M. (2016) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2016.06.003 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Validity and reproducibility of a web-based, self-administered food frequency questionnaire
Labonté, M.-È., Cyr, A., Baril-Gravel, L., Royer, M.-M., & Lamarche, B. (2012) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2011.163 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“Cade et al. (2004) and Tsubono et al. (1995) have shown that correlation coefficients between repeat administrations of a FFQ are lower (0.06–0.15 lower) when the questionnaire is repeated after a long time interval (from 6 months to 1 year later) compared with a shorter time interval (1–6 months).”
BackgroundInfluentialMarks, G. C., Hughes, M. C. B., & van der Pols, J. C. (2006) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/136.2.459 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
The Beverage Intake Questionnaire: Determining Initial Validity and Reliability
Hedrick, V. E., Comber, D. L., Estabrooks, P. A., Savla, J. T., & Davy, B. M. (2010) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.05.005 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Bountziouka, V., Bathrellou, E., Giotopoulou, A., Katsagoni, C. N., Bonou, M. S., Vallianou, N. G., Barbetseas, J. D., Avgerinos, P. C., & Panagiotakos, D. B. (2011) · Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2010.10.015 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Keshteli, A., Esmaillzadeh, A., Rajaie, S., Askari, G., Feinle‐Bisset, C., & Adibi, P. (2014) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Evaluating the quality of dietary intake validation studies
Serra‐Majem, L., Andersen, L. F., Henríque-Sánchez, P., Doreste‐Alonso, J., Sánchez‐Villegas, A., Ortiz‐Andrellucchi, A., Negri, E., & Vecchia, C. L. (2009) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114509993114 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
On Food Frequency Questionnaires
Block, G., Mandel, R., & Gold, E. B. (2004) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000112144.77106.bf · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Kinany, K. E., García-Larsen, V., Khalis, M., et al. (2018) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-018-0368-4 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) are a helpful instrument to ascertain usual dietary intake and its relationship with health and disease outcomes [7, 8].”
BackgroundNutrition and neurodevelopment in children: focus on NUTRIMENTHE project
Anjos, T. G., Altmäe, S., Emmett, P. M., Tiemeier, H. W., Closa‐Monasterolo, R., Luque, V., Wiseman, S. A., Pérez-Garcı́a, M., Lattka, E., Demmelmair, H., et al. (2013) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-013-0560-4 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“6 months or a year) have been used [107, 108].”
MethodMcLean, R. M., Farmer, V. L., Nettleton, A., Cameron, C., Cook, N. R., & Campbell, N. R. C. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Hypertension · doi:10.1111/jch.13148 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Validity of the energy-restricted Mediterranean Diet Adherence Screener
Schröder, H., Zomeño, M. D., Martínez‐González, M. Á., Salas‐Salvadó, J., Corella, D., Vioqué, J., Romaguera, D., Martínez, J. A., Tinahones, F. J., López‐Miranda, J., et al. (2021) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.06.030 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Stewart, R., Wallentin, L. C., Benatar, J. R., Danchin, N., Hagström, E., Held, C., Husted, S., Lonn, E., Stebbins, A. S., Chiswell, K., et al. (2016) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehw125 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“The simple FFQ used in this study gives a less accurate assessment of diet compared with more comprehensive FFQs and detailed food diaries.(25,26) This limitation would underestimate the strength of any association between diet and outcomes.”
MethodKowalkowska, J., Wądołowska, L., Czarnocińska, J., Człapka-Matyasik, M., Galiński, G., Jeżewska-Zychowicz, M., Bronkowska, M., Długosz, A., Łoboda, D., & Wyka, J. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10121845 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Reproducibility and validation studies conducted previously among Poles were carried out in smaller samples [22–25,42], included solely young women or FFQs were developed for specific nutrient intake only [22–25].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialValidation of a food frequency questionnaire for use in Italian adults living in Sicily
Buscemi, S., Rosafio, G., Vasto, S., Massenti, F. M., Grosso, G., Galvano, F., Rini, N., Barile, A. M., Maniaci, V., Cosentino, L., et al. (2015) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.3109/09637486.2015.1025718 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“A number of FFQs have been proposed, with the number of items ranging from 5 to 350, thus varying from very easy, but imprecise, questionnaires (as was our short-FFQ) to very accurate questionnaires, which are, however, time-consuming and stressful for the participant (Cade et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialOn the interplay between educational attainment and nutrition: a spatially-aware perspective
Azizifard, N., Morales, G. D. F., Mejova, Y., & Schifanella, R. (2021) · EPJ Data Science · doi:10.1140/epjds/s13688-021-00273-y · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“Existing studies around cultural capital and nutrition use small-scale, traditional methodologies [10, 22–25] such as food diaries, questionnaires [26, 27], and surveys [21, 28].”
BackgroundCui, Q., Xia, Y., Wu, Q., Chang, Q., Niu, K., & Zhao, Y. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1966737 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Identifying Sex-Specific Risk Factors for Low Bone Mineral Density in Adolescent Runners
Tenforde, A. S., Fredericson, M., Sayres, L. C., Cutti, P., & Sainani, K. L. (2015) · The American Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1177/0363546515572142 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“The food frequency questionnaire does not allow for an accurate measure of energy availability, although it strongly detects differences in calcium consumption.(13) The relatively smaller sample size of male runners may have limited statistical power to detect less robust risk factors for impaired bone health.”
BackgroundCui, Q., Xia, Y., Wu, Q., Chang, Q., Niu, K., & Zhao, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-020-01078-4 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Hebden, L., Kostan, E., O’Leary, F., Hodge, A. M., & Allman-Farinelli, M. A. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075156 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“They are commonly used to measure dietary intake in large populations for epidemiological studies, as they place less burden on the respondent and are usually less expensive and more easily administered than other methods of dietary assessment [1,2].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMarventano, S., Mistretta, A., Platania, A., Galvano, F., & Grosso, G. (2016) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/09637486.2016.1198893 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“The choice of reference method relied on the hypothesis that food habits may vary over seasons, thus we preferred to cover a longer period of time and administered six 24-h recalls over a period of 10 months (bimonthly) rather than a 3-day recall (one of the most common reference method) (Cade et al. 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKolodziejczyk, J. K., Merchant, G., & Norman, G. J. (2012) · Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition · doi:10.1097/mpg.0b013e318251550e · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“First, we observed an association between the number of questionnaire items on the FFQ and the strength of the correlation, which was unexpected because research has suggested that the number of items does not affect validity (50).”
BackgroundValidation of Overweight Children's Fruit and Vegetable Intake Using Plasma Carotenoids
Burrows, T. L., Warren, J. M., Colyvas, K., Garg, M. L., & Collins, C. E. (2008) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2008.495 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“Dietary intake (μg/day) Healthy (1) Overweight (2) Obese (3) Total Healthy to overweight Healthy to obese Overweight to obese”
BackgroundInfluentialBurrows, T. L., Truby, H., Morgan, P. J., Callister, R., Davies, P. S. W., & Collins, C. E. (2012) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2012.11.006 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Nutritional epidemiology: New perspectives for understanding the diet-disease relationship?
Boeing, H. (2013) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2013.47 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
McCullough, L. E., Miller, E. E., Calderwood, L. E., Shivappa, N., Steck, S. E., Forman, M. R., Méndez, M. A., Maguire, R. L., Fuemmeler, B. F., Kollins, S. H., et al. (2017) · Epigenetics · doi:10.1080/15592294.2017.1347241 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Moghames, P., Hammami, N., Hwalla, N. C., Yazbeck, N., Shoaib, H., Nasreddine, L., & Naja, F. (2015) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-015-0121-1 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“55 for calcium, a range similar in magnitude to what was obtained in the present study [14].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPoor food and nutrient intake among Indigenous and non-Indigenous rural Australian children
Gwynn, J., Flood, V. M., D’Este, C. A., Attia, J., Turner, N. A., Cochrane, J., Louie, J. C. Y., & Wiggers, J. H. (2012) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/1471-2431-12-12 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Food frequency questionnaires.
Pérez‐Rodrigo, C., Bartrina, J. A., Salvador, G., & Varela‐Moreiras, G. (2015) · PubMed · doi:10.3305/nh.2015.31.sup3.8751 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Ibiebele, T. I., Parekh, S., Mallitt, K., Hughes, M. C. B., O'Rourke, P. K., Webb, P. M., & for the Australian Ovarian Cancer Study Group and the Australian Cancer Study (2009) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980009005023 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Reproducibility of nutrient intake among the elderly has been reported to be particularly high((6,25)) as older people may be more established in their dietary habits than younger groups((25)).”
BackgroundGerritsen, S., Egli, V., Roy, R., Haszard, J., Backer, C. D. D., Teunissen, L., Cuykx, I., Decorte, P., Pabian, S., van Royen, K., et al. (2020) · Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand · doi:10.1080/03036758.2020.1841010 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“An additional limitation to note was that the food frequency questionnaire did not collect standard serves (often obtained with photo showcards to improve consistency in reporting (Cade et al. 2004)) but instead asked for portion by frequency of intake, which makes it challenging to assess dietary intake accurately.”
BackgroundMcLean, R. M., Farmer, V. L., Nettleton, A., Cameron, C., Cook, N. R., Woodward, M., & Campbell, N. R. C. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Hypertension · doi:10.1111/jch.13391 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Eghtesad, S., Hekmatdoost, A., Faramarzi, E., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1059870 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Johansson, I., Guelpen, B. R. V., Hultdin, J., Johansson, M., Hallmans, G., & Stattin, P. E. (2010) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.80 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“However, FFQs are prone to both systematic and random errors, which may lead to misclassification and attenuation of diet–disease associations (Willett, 1998; Cade et al., 2004).”
BackgroundTracking of food and nutrient intake from adolescence into early adulthood
Cruz, F., Ramos, E., Lopes, C. M. M., et al. (2018) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2018.02.015 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Amoutzopoulos, B., Page, P., Roberts, C., Roe, M., Cade, J., Steer, T., Baker, R., Hawes, T., Galloway, C., Yu, D., et al. (2020) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuz107 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationMarks, G. C., Hughes, M. C. B., & van der Pols, J. C. (2006) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1079/phn2006839 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Tabacchi, G., Amodio, E., Pasquale, M. D., Bianco, A., Jemni, M., & Mammina, C. (2013) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980013003157 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Relative validation of the KiGGS Food Frequency Questionnaire among adolescents in Germany
Truthmann, J., Mensink, G., & Richter, A. (2011) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-10-133 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“One main reason may be that it facilitates comparisons with other study results [39].”
Resultde Gavelle, E., de Lauzon‐Guillain, B., Charles, M.-A. A., Chevrier, C., Flamant‐Hulin, M., Sirot, V., Merlo, M., & Nougadère, A. (2016) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2016.04.007 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Firstly, use of FFQs to collect food consumption data led to overreporting of food intake (Cade et al., 2004; Deschamps et al., 2009) and thus over-estimation of exposure, which is protective for risk assessment.”
Lafrenière, J., Laramée, C., Robitaille, J., Lamarche, B., & Lemieux, S. (2018) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980018001611 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“In studies evaluating relative validity, authors often use similar established statistical approaches (18,19) .”
Jaceldo‐Siegl, K., Fan, J., Sabaté, J., Knutsen, S. F., Haddad, E. H., Beeson, W. L., Herring, R. P., Butler, T. L., Bennett, H., & Fraser, G. E. (2011) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980011000735 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Another likely explanation is social desirability bias((21)).”
Tayyem, R., AbuMweis, S. S., Bawadi, H. A., Agraib, L. M., & Bani-Hani, K. E. (2013) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2013.08.019 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Paired t test was conducted to examine the differences between the 24-hour recalls and FFQ.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBiolato, M., Manca, F., Marrone, G., Cefalo, C., Racco, S., Miggiano, G. A. D., Valenza, V., Gasbarrini, A., Miele, L., & Grieco, A. (2019) · World Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.3748/wjg.v25.i4.509 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Hörnell, A., Berg, C., Forsum, E., Larsson, C. L., Sonestedt, E., Åkesson, A., Lachat, C. K., Hawwash, D., Kolsteren, P. W., Byrnes, G. B., et al. (2017) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.3945/an.117.015941 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationEngland, C. Y., Andrews, R. C., Jago, R., & Thompson, J. L. (2015) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2015.6 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“However, best practice in food frequency questionnaire design involves pre-testing.(41) 288 All tools, except 1, were tested for relative validity against one or more reference measures, 289 although there was a wide variation in the design of studies, the variables used and the 290 statistical tests employed.”
InfluentialValidity and calibration of the FFQ used in the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study
Bassett, J. K., English, D. R., Fahey, M. T., Forbes, A. B., Gurrin, L. C., Simpson, J. A., Brinkman, M. T., Giles, G. G., & Hodge, A. M. (2016) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980016000690 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“(31) found that vege-table and vitamin A intakes showed the lowest correlation between the test FFQ and the dietary reference methods and noted this may be associated with the inclusion or exclusion of speci fi c vegetables rich in provitamin A carotenoids.”
Effect of a Fruit and Vegetable Prescription Program on Children’s Fruit and Vegetable Consumption
Ridberg, R. A., Bell, J. F., Merritt, K. E., Harris, D. M., Young, H. M., & Tancredi, D. J. (2019) · Preventing Chronic Disease · doi:10.5888/pcd16.180555 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Exposure to food contaminants during pregnancy
Chan-Hon-Tong, A., Charles, M.-A. A., Forhan, A., et al. (2013) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.100 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“In the EDEN study, the data have been collected with FFQs which may lead to overestimation of the exposure due to memorizing bias (Cade et al., 2004).”
MethodMagkos, F., Μanios, Y., Babaroutsi, E., & Sidossis, L. S. (2004) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-004-1679-1 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Generally, however, less than half of all FFQs being validated are tested for reproducibility [35, 36].”
BackgroundPalacios, C. S., Trak‐Fellermeier, M. A., Betancourt, J., JOSHIPURA, K. J., & Tucker, K. L. (2015) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980014003218 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“For an FFQ to be valid, it should consist of a list of foods typically consumed by the population of interest, including estimation of the portion size and appropriate recipes for preparation of these foods; it should also use an adequate food composition database for calculating nutrients from the list of foods inclu…”
MethodZang, J., Luo, B., Chang, S.-Y., Jin, S., Shan, C., Ma, L., Zhu, Z., Guo, C., Zou, S., Jia, X., et al. (2019) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-019-0454-2 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Weight-Loss Interventions for Hispanic Populations: The Role of Culture
Lindberg, N. M., Stevens, V. J., & Halperin, R. O. (2013) · Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1155/2013/542736 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Adherence to dietary guidelines and 15-year risk of all-cause mortality
Russell, J. C., Flood, V. M., Rochtchina, E., Gopinath, B., Allman-Farinelli, M. A., Bauman, A. E., & Mitchell, P. (2012) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114512001377 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Flood, V. M., Wen, L. M., Hardy, L. L., Rissel, C. E., Simpson, J. M., & Baur, L. A. (2013) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980013000414 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“In the case of the CDQ, the authors used a short frequency tool as a comparison dietary assessment method, rather than the more common method of food record or multiple 24h recalls((28)).”
MethodFruit intake and cardiovascular disease mortality in the UK Women’s Cohort Study
Lai, H. T. M., Threapleton, D. E., Day, A. J., Williamson, G., Cade, J. E., & Burley, V. J. (2015) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-015-0050-5 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Self-reported fruit intakes in the UKWCS (400 g/day) are well above the national average [58, 59] and other studies [11, 60], possibly due to overreporting through the FFQ in general [61], as observed in other cohort studies employing this method of dietary assessment [62].”
ResultSelf-citationHendrie, G. A., Baird, D., Golley, R. K., & Noakes, M. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9010047 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“The validation of FFQs has traditionally been in relation to energy and nutrient intakes but not food intake [5,6].”
BackgroundFausnacht, A. G., Myers, E. A., Hess, E. L., Davy, B. M., & Hedrick, V. E. (2020) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/jhn.12749 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Wu, H., Gozdzik, A., Barta, J. L., et al. (2009) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2009.03.006 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“The results are easy to collect and process and are taken to represent usual intakes [10,11].”
BackgroundJia, X., Craig, L. C. A., Aucott, L. S., Milne, A. C., & McNeill, G. (2008) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1007/bf03028622 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“A review of FFQ design and validation suggested that the validity of a FFQ could be improved if the participants were able to define their own portion sizes ( 25 ).”
García-Larsen, V., Łuczyńska, M., Kowalski, M. L., Voutilainen, H., Ahlström, M., Haahtela, T., Тоскала, Е., Bockelbrink, A., Lee, H.-H., Vassilopoulou, Ε., et al. (2011) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2011.15 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Gwynn, J., Flood, V. M., D’Este, C. A., Attia, J., Turner, N. A., Cochrane, J., & Wiggers, J. H. (2010) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980010001928 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“may be more appropriate to use cross-culturally and with low-income participants((10)) as well as with those who may be cautious about engaging in a study or for whom literacy is an issue((17)).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSiruguri, V., & Bhat, R. V. (2015) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-14-7 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
England, C. Y., Thompson, J. L., Jago, R., Cooper, A. R., & Andrews, R. C. (2016) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980016002275 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Habitual intake was compared with a ‘snapshot’ intake and it is important to emphasise that low agreement between the food diaries and the UKDDQ scores does not indicate that the UKDDQ is ‘inaccurate’((29)) since there is no ‘true’ measure of dietary intake((30)).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSaeedi, P., Skeaff, S. A., Wong, J. E., & Skidmore, P. M. L. (2016) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu8050271 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Correlation coefficients show the degree to which two administrations of the FFQ are associated, but not the agreement [43].”
BackgroundRodriguez, C. A., Smith, E., Villamor, E., et al. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9101121 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“One review of validation studies in children and adolescents found that 20–60 item questionnaires were associated with higher validity [6]; however, other reviews have suggested there is no effect of questionnaire length on validity [32].”
BackgroundFerrero, G., Carpi, S., Polini, B., Pardini, B., Nieri, P., Impeduglia, A., Grioni, S., Tarallo, S., & Naccarati, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.619200 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“The FFQ consisted of 248 questions concerning 188 different food items and included photos with two or three sample dishes of definite sizes, or references to standard portion sizes.”
BackgroundInfluentialResearch into food portion size: methodological aspects and applications
Almiron‐Roig, E., Navas‐Carretero, S., Emery, P. W., & Martínez, J. A. (2017) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/c7fo01430a · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Validity of an FFQ to measure nutrient and food intakes in Tanzania
Zack, R. M., Irema, K., Kazonda, P., Leyna, G. H., Liu, E., Gilbert, S., Lukmanji, Z., Spiegelman, D. L., Fawzi, W. W., Njelekela, M. A., et al. (2018) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980018000848 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“To account for this, we included ‘ handful ’ ( ujazo wa kiganja cha mkono in Swahili) as a serving size option in the FFQ. Previous FFQ validation studies have similarly found that correlations tend to be lower for vegetables than other food groups (22,25,44,46 – 48) .”
Gender analysis in the development and validation of FFQ: a systematic review
Lee, H., Kang, M., Song, W. O., Shim, J. E., & Paik, H. Y. (2015) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114515004717 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Hafizah, Y. N., Ang, L. C., Yap, F., Nik, W. N. N. W., Cheah, W. L., Talib, R. A., Jumuddin, F. A., Koh, D., Lee, J. A. C., Essau, C. A., et al. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16234722 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the relationship between dietary intakes of a nutrient and its biomarker are not always direct and may be influenced by absorption [39].”
BackgroundSchneider, B. C., Motta, J. V. D. S., Muniz, L. C., et al. (2016) · Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia · doi:10.1590/1980-5497201600020017 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Validation of a self-administered FFQ in adults in Argentina, Chile and Uruguay
Elorriaga, N., Irazola, V. E., Defagó, M. D., et al. (2014) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980013003431 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“24HR have some similar error sources, like the reliance on memory and the perception of portion size((7,30,35)), although the FFQ relies on long-term memory and the 24HR on short-term memory.”
BackgroundInfluentialBrown, A. W., Aslibekyan, S. W., Bier, D. M., da Silva, R. F., Hoover, A. W., Klurfeld, D. M., Loken, E., Mayo‐Wilson, E., Menachemi, N., Pavela, G., et al. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1985427 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of the validity of FFQ targeted to adolescents
Tabacchi, G., Filippi, A. R., Amodio, E., Jemni, M., Bianco, A., Firenze, A., & Mammina, C. (2015) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980015002505 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Semi-quantitative FFQ are valid and reliable dietary assessment methods used worldwide on adolescents and are suggested as appropriate tools for the collection of dietary intake data in large-scale surveys((1,2)), since they have the advantages of ease of administration, saving of economic resources and ability to ass…”
MethodGregório, M. J., Rodrigues, A. M., Salvador, C., Dias, S. S., de Sousa, R. D., Mendes, J. M., Coelho, P. S., Branco, J., Lopes, C. M. M., Martínez‐González, M. Á., et al. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12051511 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Eysteinsdóttir, T., Þórsdóttir, I., Gunnarsdóttir, I., et al. (2012) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-11-12 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Sam, C. H. Y., Skeaff, S. A., & Skidmore, P. M. L. (2012) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980012005058 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“been shown to influence reliability((7,33)), it is appropriate”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKobayashi, S., Yuan, X., Sasaki, S., Osawa, Y., Hirata, T., Abe, Y., Takayama, M., Arai, Y., Masui, Y., & Ishizaki, T. (2018) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980018002331 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Dietary questionnaires can assess long-term dietary habits and are convenient for dietary surveys((13,14)).”
BackgroundValidation of a food frequency questionnaire to measure intakes of inulin and oligofructose
Dunn, S., Datta, A., Kallis, S., Law, E., Myers, C. E., & Whelan, K. (2010) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.272 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“The FFQ demonstrated good validity, with population intakes almost identical to the FD and correlations between the two methods similar to those reported in other validation studies (Cade et al., 2004).”
BackgroundResultAoun, C., Daher, R. B., Osta, N. E., Papazian, T., & Khabbaz, L. R. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218541 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Cruwys, T., Norwood, R., Chachay, V., Ntontis, E., & Sheffield, J. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12040970 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Measured adherence was assessed using an adapted Food Frequency Questionnaire [33,34], which was revised and piloted with guidance from a dietitian (third author).”
MethodPattern analysis of vegan eating reveals healthy and unhealthy patterns within the vegan diet
Gallagher, C. T., Hanley, P., & Lane, K. E. (2021) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s136898002100197x · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“The validatedEPIC-Norfolk FFQ(29)wasmodified to includequestions representative of foods and drinks suitable for vegans.”
Bartoll, X., Toffolutti, V., Malmusi, D., Palència, L., Borrell, C., & Suhrcke, M. (2015) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2204-5 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Food frequency questionnaires have been reported as a valid instrument for ranking subjects according to their level of intake, but not for estimating absolute intake [47], and have been found to be closely related to health outcomes [48].”
BackgroundFlores, M., Macías, N., Rivera-Pasquel, M., et al. (2009) · Salud Pública de México · doi:10.1590/s0036-36342009001000009 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Musaiger, A. O., Mufty, B. A., & Al-Hazzaa, H. M. (2014) · Food and Nutrition Bulletin · doi:10.1177/156482651403500102 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“However, the qualitative food frequency method is widely used worldwide, with acceptable validity [12].”
BackgroundMethodNutrition and the homeless: the underestimated challenge
Seale, J. V., Fallaize, R., & Lovegrove, J. A. (2016) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422416000068 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“drink consumed over, typically, the preceding 6 months or year((19)).”
BackgroundIntelligence in youth and health behaviours in middle age
Wraw, C., Der, G., Galé, C. R., & Deary, I. J. (2018) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2018.04.005 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cade, J. E., Burley, V. J., Warm, D. L., Thompson, R. L., & Margetts, B. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Leeds (GB)
- University of Southampton (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Cade, J. E.
- Venue
- Nutrition Research Reviews
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2004-06
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-22
- ISSN
- 0954-4224 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2700
- OpenAlex
- W2155756215
- Cited by
- 518
- References
- 214
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 2.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nutrition Research Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Keywords
- food frequency questionnaire, dietary assessment, questionnaire design, questionnaire validation, nutrient intake estimation, cross-sectional survey, disease-specific questionnaire, expert consensus recommendations
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