Correlates of dementia-related anxiety: self-perceived dementia risk and ageism
Open accessAbstract
As public awareness of and exposure to Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRD) have increased worldwide, the fear of developing ADRD, or dementia-related anxiety (DRA), is expected to increase as well. It was hypothesized that at least part of what makes dementia so anxiety-provoking is the association of ADRD with older adults, an often stigmatized group. To test this hypothesis, two online studies examined how ageist beliefs contribute to DRA; the roles of ADRD-related factors, such as self-perceived risk and personal exposure, were also examined. Study 1 included university students (n = 295, age range: 18 to 58 years, Mage = 21.16, SDage = 4.85) to determine what factors may contribute to young adults’ DRA. Study 2 included adults of all ages (n = 352, age range: 18 to 81 years, Mage = 37.85, SDage = 12.88) to determine whether Study 1 results were replicable among adults of all ages. Hierarchical multiple regressions were used. Results from both studies demonstrated that being female and having higher self-perceived dementia risk and benevolent ageism uniquely explicated higher levels of DRA. Within Study 2, significant relationships for both benevolent and hostile ageism were observed, suggesting that diverse negative attitudes toward older adults are associated with DRA. It is possible that strong ageist attitudes stigmatize older adults as those who are forgetful and this may contribute to DRA, as age is a major risk factor for developing dementia. Study limitations and directions for future research are discussed.
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Claims the paper makes
11 of 54 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
There is a negative relationship between age and dementia-related anxiety.
“Other research studies have also supported this negative relationship between age and DRA (Cutler, 2015; Yun, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Cutler, 2015 source
- cites Yun, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Family history of dementia is a strong predictor of ADRD diagnosis, particularly for Alzheimer's disease.
“Besides age, family history of dementia has been acknowledged as a strong predictor of ADRD diagnosis, particularly for AD (Cutler & Hodgson, 2001; Ostergren, Heeringa, Leon, Connell, & Roberts, 2017; Roberts & Connell, 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked- cites Cutler & Hodgson, 2001 source
The Discussion (page not available in our copy) says genetic risk for AD is higher among first-degree relatives. But this study examines concern about developing AD, not whether family history strongly predicts an ADRD diagnosis; it also does not establish the claim for dementias beyond AD. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Ostergren, Heeringa, Leon, Connell, & Roberts, 2017 source
The Discussion (page unavailable) describes family history and genetics as important contributors to AD risk. But the study examines perceived threat of AD, not whether family history strongly predicts an ADRD diagnosis; it also does not establish the claimed strength of that prediction. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Roberts & Connell, 2000 source
- Premisecitation
Multiple studies have found that people with family history of Alzheimer's disease and/or caregiving experience report greater fear of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“For instance, multiple studies have found that those with family history of AD (Cutler & Hodgson, 2001; Ostergren, Heeringa, Leon, Connell, & Roberts, 2017; Roberts & Connell, 2000) and/or experience with caregiving for someone with AD (Cantegreil-Kallen & Pin, 2012; Suhr & Kinkela, 2007), report greater fear of developing AD in the future.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Cantegreil-Kallen & Pin, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Cutler & Hodgson, 2001 source
- cites Ostergren et al., 2017; Roberts & Connell, 2000; Suhr & Kinkela, 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Age is the biggest risk factor for dementia.
“Furthermore, most of the negative attitudes towards aging are related to cognitive abilities of older adults, and these negative attitudes can occur even without any indication of cognitive decline (Cuddy et al., 2005; Nosek et al., 2002; Whitbourne & Seed, 2002), and age is, indeed, the biggest risk factor for dementia (Chen, Lin, & Chen, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Chen, Lin, & Chen, 2009 source
The Age section says dementia risk increases with age and describes aging as a relatively consistent risk factor across ethnic groups. It does not rank age against other risk factors, so it does not establish that age is the biggest. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Studies on genetic susceptibility testing for Alzheimer's disease show a strong association between family history and genetic risk factors and self-perceived risk of the disease.
“Similarly, studies on genetic susceptibility testing for AD have shown that there is a strong association between family history and genetic risk factor for AD on self-perceived risk of the disease (Hiraki, Chen, Roberts, Cupples, & Green, 2008; Larusse et al., 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites Hiraki, Chen, Roberts, Cupples, & Green, 2008 source
The Results (Risk Perception Analyses; page not provided) report that family history and belief in genetics as an AD risk factor were significant predictors of perceived risk among people seeking genetic testing. The paper measured belief in genetics, not an actual genetic risk factor, and found no evidence that this belief strengthened the association between family history and perceived risk. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Larusse et al., 2005 source
The Abstract (page unavailable) reports that women given an APOE ε4-negative result perceived lower AD risk than women given the same numerical estimate based on family history alone. This supports an effect of genetic-test information on perceived risk, but all participants had a family history of AD; the study does not establish a separate strong association between family history and perceived risk. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Interpretationown data
The finding of no significant difference in dementia-related anxiety by genetic ADRD exposure is inconsistent with prior literature that family history of AD and caregiving for someone with AD are associated with greater dementia-related anxiety.
“The lack of significant difference in DRA between those with and without genetic ADRD exposure is inconsistent with previous literature showing that having a family member with AD (Cutler & Hodgson, 2001; Ostergren et al., 2017; Roberts & Connell, 2000) and caregiving for someone with AD (Cantegreil-Kallen & Pin, 2012; Suhr & Kinkela, 2007) are associated with greater levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked- cites Cutler & Hodgson, 2001 source
- cites Ostergren et al., 2017 source
- cites Roberts & Connell, 2000 source
- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately report their dementia exposure and self-perceived risk.
- Premisecitation
Young adults tend to describe older adults as high in warmth but low in competence.
“This result aligns with literature revealing young adults’ tendency to describe older adults as high in warmth but low in competence (Cuddy & Fiske, 2002; Cuddy et al., 2009; Cuddy et al., 2005; Fiske et al., 1999)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked - Findingown data
In both Study 1 and Study 2, higher benevolent ageism was uniquely associated with higher levels of dementia-related anxiety.
“Results from both studies demonstrated that being female and having higher self-perceived ADRD risk and benevolent ageism uniquely explicated higher levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Study 1, female gender was associated with significantly higher dementia-related anxiety.
“However, being female was associated with significantly higher DRA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 1, hostile ageism was not significantly related to dementia-related anxiety.
“Participants’ hostile ageism was unrelated to the level of DRA, suggesting there may be a unique relationship between young adults’ DRA and benevolent ageism – positive ageism or patronizing ageism.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In both Study 1 and Study 2, higher self-perceived ADRD risk was uniquely associated with higher levels of dementia-related anxiety.
“Results from both studies demonstrated that being female and having higher self-perceived ADRD risk and benevolent ageism uniquely explicated higher levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Study 1, higher self-perceived risk for dementia uniquely predicted greater dementia-related anxiety.
“Specifically, being female and having higher ratings of self-perceived risk for dementia uniquely predicted greater levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In both Study 1 and Study 2, being female was uniquely associated with higher levels of dementia-related anxiety.
“Results from both studies demonstrated that being female and having higher self-perceived ADRD risk and benevolent ageism uniquely explicated higher levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Study 1, benevolent ageism uniquely predicted greater dementia-related anxiety.
“The regression analysis revealed that being female, having higher self-perceived risk for dementia and benevolent ageism, and reporting lower social desirability significantly predicted greater levels of reported DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 1, the full hierarchical regression model including demographics, ADRD factors, and ageism accounted for 12.7% of the variance in dementia-related anxiety.
“The third model (demographics, ADRD factors, and ageism) accounted for 12.7% of the total variance in DRA, F(9, 279) = 4.50, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 1, lower social desirability uniquely predicted greater dementia-related anxiety.
“The regression analysis revealed that being female, having higher self-perceived risk for dementia and benevolent ageism, and reporting lower social desirability significantly predicted greater levels of reported DRA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 2, mean dementia-related anxiety did not differ significantly between no exposure, non-genetic exposure, and genetic exposure groups.
“The mean level of DRA reported by those with no exposure (n = 83, M = 1.79, SD = .86) was not significantly different than the mean amount of DRA reported by those with non-genetic (n = 25, M = 1.83, SD = .68) and genetic exposure (n = 244, M = 1.99, SD = .87).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately report their dementia exposure and self-perceived risk.
- Findingown data
In Study 2, the full hierarchical regression model explained 28.8% of the variance in dementia-related anxiety.
“The third model (demographics, ADRD factors, and ageism) accounted for 28.8% of the total variance in DRA, F(9, 339) = 15.22, p < .001.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 1, the overall difference in mean dementia-related anxiety across ADRD exposure groups did not reach statistical significance (p=.06).
“Group differences as a result of ADRD exposure did not reach statistical significance, F(2, 292) = 2.89, p = .06.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately report their dementia exposure and self-perceived risk.
- Findingown data
More than 80% of participants in both studies identified as Caucasian and Non-Hispanic.
“One possible limitation is the disproportionate number of participants identifying as Caucasian and Non-Hispanic in the study (more than 80% of participants in both studies).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In Study 2, social desirability was not associated with dementia-related anxiety.
“Unlike Study 1, social desirability was not associated with greater DRA, though younger age was.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 2, younger age predicted greater dementia-related anxiety.
“However, younger age was significantly associated with higher DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 2, female gender predicted greater dementia-related anxiety.
“The regression analysis revealed that women and those reporting greater self-perceived ADRD risk, benevolent ageism, and hostile ageism reported greater levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 1, participants with non-genetic exposure did not differ significantly from those with no exposure in dementia-related anxiety.
“Participants with non-genetic exposure (M = 1.48, SD = .47) did not significantly differ from those without exposure (p = .16).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately report their dementia exposure and self-perceived risk.
- Findingown data
In Study 1, participants with genetic and non-genetic exposure did not differ in dementia-related anxiety.
“Participants with genetic and non-genetic dementia exposure did not differ in reported DRA (p = .85).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately report their dementia exposure and self-perceived risk.
- Findingown data
In Study 2, the main effect of ADRD exposure type on dementia-related anxiety was not significant.
“The main effect of dementia exposure on DRA was not significant, F(2, 349) = 1.87, p = .16.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately report their dementia exposure and self-perceived risk.
- Findingreasoning
Ageism is significantly related to dementia-related anxiety.
“Particularly, the studies demonstrate that ageism is significantly related to DRA, as people may not adequately distinguish between older adults and those with ADRD.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 2, higher self-perceived risk for dementia uniquely predicted greater dementia-related anxiety.
“Specifically, younger age and higher self-perceived risk for dementia uniquely predicted greater levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Findingown data
In Study 1, participants with genetic exposure to dementia reported significantly higher dementia-related anxiety than those with no exposure.
“Participants without dementia exposure (M = 1.35, SD = .41) reported significantly lower level of DRA compared to those with genetic exposure (M = 1.50, SD = .46), p < .05.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately report their dementia exposure and self-perceived risk.
- Premisecitation
Firmly embedded age-related stereotypes are prevalent across different groups of people.
“Nosek, Banaji, and Greenwald (2002) reported that firmly embedded age-related stereotypes are prevalent across different groups of people.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Nosek, Banaji, and Greenwald (2002) source
- Premisecitation
A study in Ireland found negative attitudes toward people with dementia among adults of all ages, particularly regarding loss of self-identity and independence.
“In a study conducted in Ireland, McParland, Devine, Innes, and Gayle (2012) found negative attitudes towards people with dementia amongst of adults of all ages, particularly with the loss of self-identity and independence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McParland, Devine, Innes, and Gayle (2012) source
- Interpretationreasoning
People with greater exposure to ADRD might be more susceptible to dementia-related anxiety because they have observed more negative symptoms and aspects of a dementia diagnosis.
“People who have greater exposure to ADRD might be more susceptible to DRA, as they have observed and been personally impacted by more negative symptoms and aspects related to a dementia diagnosis, such as a family member’s loss of independence and changes in their sense of self.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The Dementia Worry Scale items demonstrated good internal reliability for this sample (α = .87).
“DWS items demonstrated good internal reliability for this sample (α = .87).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
People who have a family member diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease and know there is a hereditary component might experience more dementia-related anxiety.
“Those who have a family member diagnosed with AD and know that there is a hereditary component for the disease might experience more DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Dementia-related anxiety is likely to be exacerbated by strong implicit negative biases against older adults, culturally embedded age-related stereotypes, and dementia-related stigma.
“Therefore, based on the existence of strong implicit negative biases against older adults observable in adults of all ages (Nosek et al., 2002), culturally embedded age-related stereotypes (Cuddy et al., 2005), and dementia-related stigma (Moniz-Cook & Manthorpe, 2009; Prince, Bryce, & Ferri, 2011), DRA is likely to be exacerbated.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Ageist stereotypes suggesting older adults have cognitive difficulties may contribute to dementia-related anxiety, especially among those who believe they are at greater risk for ADRD.
“Many ageist stereotypes suggest older adults have difficulties with cognitive impairment, which may contribute to DRA, particularly among those who believe they are at greater risk for developing ADRD in the future.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
People often worry about loss of cognitive abilities as they age, even in the absence of ADRD.
“Even in the absence of ADRD, people often worry about loss of cognitive abilities as they age, likely due to inevitable age-related cognitive decline that occur in adulthood (Park, O’Connell, & Thomson, 2003) and the strong negative biases generally associated with older adults (Cuddy, Norton, & Fiske, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Benevolent ageism may be less visible because positive ageist beliefs are positively related to social desirability.
“Indeed, benevolent ageism may not be as visible because of the positive relationship between positive ageist beliefs and social desirability (Cherry, Allen, Denver, & Holland, 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cherry, Allen, Denver, & Holland, 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationown data
Diverse negative attitudes toward older adults are associated with dementia-related anxiety.
“Within Study 2, significant effects of both benevolent and hostile ageism were observed, suggesting that diverse negative attitudes toward older adults are associated with DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
People are more likely to admit positive ageism compared to negative ageism.
“Multiple studies have also found that people are more likely to admit positive ageism compared to negative ageism, which may explain the association between social desirability and self-reported ageism questionnaires (Allen, Cherry, & Palmore, 2009; Cherry et al., 2015; Papadaki, Plotnikof, & Papadaki, 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Allen, Cherry, & Palmore, 2009 source
- cites Cherry et al., 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Papadaki, Plotnikof, & Papadaki, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Any type of ageism, positive or negative, can have detrimental effects on older adults through stereotyping.
“Any type of ageism, regardless of whether it is “positive” or “negative” can have detrimental effects on older adults through stereotyping, especially when the older adult does not “fit” certain characteristics that are imposed, such as being a “warm and caring” grandmother (Chen, 2015; Cherry & Palmore, 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chen, 2015
- cites Cherry & Palmore, 2008 source
- Interpretationown data
The generalizability of Study 1 results is potentially limited by the high proportion of female participants.
“Additionally, for Study 1, 83.7% of the sample identified as female, potentially limiting the generalizability of the results.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Dementia-related anxiety appears to be at least partially fueled by ageist beliefs.
“DRA appears to be at least partially fueled by ageist beliefs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
- Premisecitation
Ageist, paternalistic behaviors can negatively affect older adults' well-being.
“Not only are ageist beliefs related to higher levels of DRA, but ageist, paternalistic behaviors can negatively affect older adults’ well-being.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kemper et al., 1995 source
- Study design and conductown data
The measures used in Study 2 had good to excellent internal consistency (AAS αs=.80-.87, DWS α=.95, Marlowe-Crowne α=.80).
“As in Study 1, measures included AAS (αs = .80 – .87), personal exposure to ADRD questionnaire, DWS (α = .95), and the short version of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (α = .80); all displayed good to excellent internal consistency.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
There is stigma associated with dementia diagnoses.
“and there is stigma associated with dementia diagnoses (Moniz-Cook & Manthorpe, 2009; Prince, Bryce, & Ferri, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Moniz-Cook & Manthorpe, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Prince, Bryce, & Ferri, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Kemper et al. (1995) found that elderspeak can generate feelings of incompetence and lowered self-esteem among older adults.
“In an early example, Kemper and colleagues (1995) found that using elderspeak, or making simpler speech adjustments for older adults, can generate feelings of incompetence and lowered self-esteem among older adults.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kemper et al., 1995 source
- Study design and conductreasoning
The correlational design of the studies prevents causal conclusions about relationships between factors of interest to dementia-related anxiety.
“Another limitation is the inability to determine causality from the data due to correlational design. These correlational studies investigated relationships between variables at a single point in time. Therefore, the results cannot address causality between factors of interest to DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14
- May combine two claims. 14
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAgeism has been found across cultures.
“Ageism has been found across cultures (Cuddy & Fiske, 2002; Vauclair, Hanke, Huang, & Abrams, 2017), suggesting that strong ageist values are prevalent among different groups of people.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn Study 2, both benevolent and hostile ageism had significant effects on dementia-related anxiety.
“Within Study 2, significant effects of both benevolent and hostile ageism were observed, suggesting that diverse negative attitudes toward older adults are associated with DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAcross both studies, gender, self-perceived dementia risk, and ageism had significant effects on dementia-related anxiety.
“Findings demonstrate significant effects of gender, self-perceived dementia risk, and ageism on DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn Study 2, hostile ageism uniquely predicted greater dementia-related anxiety.
“The regression analysis revealed that women and those reporting greater self-perceived ADRD risk, benevolent ageism, and hostile ageism reported greater levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataParticipants in Study 1 and Study 2 reported generally low levels of dementia-related anxiety (M=1.50 and M=1.96, respectively).
“It is not clear why our findings do not align with previous studies but is notable that participants in the present studies reported generally a low level of DRA (Mstudy1 = 1.50 and Mstudy2 = 1.96); perhaps lower overall concerns about developing ADRD in the future contributed to the lack of group differences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataEducation, relationship status, and ADRD exposure type had no significant effects on dementia-related anxiety in either study.
“No significant effects of education, relationship status, and ADRD exposure type were found within either sample.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn Study 2, benevolent ageism uniquely predicted greater dementia-related anxiety.
“The regression analysis revealed that women and those reporting greater self-perceived ADRD risk, benevolent ageism, and hostile ageism reported greater levels of DRA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn Study 1, age, relationship status, and education did not significantly predict dementia-related anxiety.
“DRA was not predicted by participants’ age, relationship status, or education, ps > .05, n.s.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataIn Study 1, 83.7% of the sample identified as female.
“Additionally, for Study 1, 83.7% of the sample identified as female, potentially limiting the generalizability of the results.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAs exposure to and awareness of ADRD increase, concern about developing ADRD is expected to increase.
“As public awareness of and exposure to Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRD) have increased worldwide, the fear of developing ADRD, or dementia-related anxiety (DRA), is expected to increase as well.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“As exposure to ADRD and awareness that dementias are often progressive and irreversible increase, concern about developing ADRD (dementia-related anxiety; DRA) is expected to increase as well (Corner & Bond, 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Corner & Bond, 2004 source
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationBenevolent ageism appears to have significant negative effects on older adults' physical and mental health, especially if they internalize stereotypes of being warm and incompetent.
“Although generally seen as more “positive” and less threatening than overt or hostile ageism, benevolent ageism appears to have significant negative effects on older adults’ physical and mental health, especially if they internalize these stereotypes of being “warm and incompetent” and feel a lack of self-control from over-accommodation (Cary et al., 2016; Langer, & Rodin, 1976).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Cary et al., 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Langer, & Rodin, 1976
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAdults with genetic exposure to dementia report higher dementia-related anxiety than individuals with non-genetic exposure.
“Indeed, Kinzer and Suhr (2016) reported that adults with genetic exposure report higher DRA than individuals with non-genetic exposure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kinzer and Suhr (2016) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe Ambivalent Ageism Scale subscales demonstrated internal reliability in this sample (benevolent α = .83; hostile α = .76).
“The scale has two subscales: benevolent ageism (i.e., “it is good to tell old people that they are too old to do certain things; otherwise they might get their feelings hurt when they eventually fail”; α = .83) and hostile ageism (i.e., “old people are a drain on the health care system and the economy”; α = .76).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale items displayed poor internal reliability (α = .64).
“The items in the scale displayed poor internal reliability (α = .64).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataOf 375 recruited participants, 295 (78.7%) met inclusion criteria; 80 were excluded for dropping out, being under 18, missing more than one attention check, or being an outlier on the main dependent variable.
“Of the 375 participants recruited, 295 participants (78.7%) met criteria for inclusion in data analysis. Eighty participants were excluded for one of four reasons: dropping out of the study partway and not answering all the questions (n = 19), being under 18 years old (n = 1), missing more than one attention check (n = 52), or being an outlier on the main dependent variable (n = 8).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationMost people experience ageism because everyone ages over time.
“Ageism is unique among the -isms in that everyone ages with time (assuming evasion of premature death), and as a result, most people experience ageism (Palmore, 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Palmore, 2003 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationFear about ADRD is not specific to older adults; more than half of 2,000 survey respondents aged 30 to 50 reported it.
“Interestingly, fear about ADRD was not specific to older adults, with more than half of the 2,000 survey respondents between the ages of 30 and 50 (Alzheimer’s Research UK, 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Alzheimer’s Research UK, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningThe study description did not mention ageism and dementia-related anxiety to minimize the risk of influencing participants' responses.
“The study description did not mention ageism and dementia-related anxiety to minimize the risk of influencing participants’ responses.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationMost negative attitudes toward aging relate to older adults' cognitive abilities, and these attitudes can occur without any indication of cognitive decline.
“Furthermore, most of the negative attitudes towards aging are related to cognitive abilities of older adults, and these negative attitudes can occur even without any indication of cognitive decline (Cuddy et al., 2005; Nosek et al., 2002; Whitbourne & Seed, 2002), and age is, indeed, the biggest risk factor for dementia (Chen, Lin, & Chen, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAlzheimer's disease has been identified as the most feared disease by about 31% of US adults, with only cancer more frequently identified as most feared (41%).
“In fact, AD has been identified as the most feared disease by about 31% of adults in the United States, according to a survey conducted by MetLife Foundation (2011); only cancer was more frequently identified as most feared (41% of adults).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites MetLife Foundation (2011)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn a 2011 UK online survey, more than 68% of respondents indicated Alzheimer's disease was their most feared health condition, followed by cancer (27%) and death (18%).
“Likewise, in an online survey conducted in the United Kingdom in 2011, more than 68% of respondents indicated AD was their most feared health condition, followed by cancer (27%) and death (18%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Alzheimer’s Research UK, 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThis worry is likely due to inevitable age-related cognitive decline and strong negative biases associated with older adults.
“Even in the absence of ADRD, people often worry about loss of cognitive abilities as they age, likely due to inevitable age-related cognitive decline that occur in adulthood (Park, O’Connell, & Thomson, 2003) and the strong negative biases generally associated with older adults (Cuddy, Norton, & Fiske, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningADRD may be feared by many people, including young adults, because aging is inevitable and older adults are often associated with negativity and lowered cognitive function.
“Thus, ADRD may be “feared” by many people (even young adults) because aging is inevitable, and older adults are often associated with negativity and lowered cognitive function.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningSocial desirability was included in the regression to statistically control for socially desirable responding.
“Social desirability was included with the measures of ageism (or block 3) for the regression model; although it is not a direct measure of ageism, social desirability and benevolent ageism are correlated (Cherry et al., 2015). The inclusion of social desirability allowed for statistical control for the tendency to respond in a socially desirable manner, particularly given the relationship between”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cherry et al., 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningPeople may not adequately distinguish between older adults and those with ADRD.
“Particularly, the studies demonstrate that ageism is significantly related to DRA, as people may not adequately distinguish between older adults and those with ADRD.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe studies offer preliminary findings regarding different types of ageism, particularly how benevolent ageism might be related to dementia-related anxiety.
“Despite these limitations, the studies offer preliminary findings regarding different types of ageism, particularly how benevolent ageism might be related to DRA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCherry et al. (2015) found a small but significant correlation between social desirability and self-reported ageism.
“In fact, Cherry and colleagues (2015) found a small but significant correlation between social desirability and self-reported ageism.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cherry et al., 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMany people hold strong negative attitudes toward older adults, especially regarding their memory ability.
“Previous studies have revealed that many people hold strong negative attitudes toward older adults, especially in regards to their memory ability (Cuddy et al., 2005; Nosek et al., 2002; Whitbourne & Seed, 2002)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
The paper relies on this without support.
The self-report measures used validly capture the constructs of dementia-related anxiety and ageism.
“As in Study 1, measures included AAS (αs = .80 – .87), personal exposure to ADRD questionnaire, DWS (α = .95), and the short version of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (α = .80); all displayed good to excellent internal consistency.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants accurately report their dementia exposure and self-perceived risk.
“As in Study 1, measures included AAS (αs = .80 – .87), personal exposure to ADRD questionnaire, DWS (α = .95), and the short version of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (α = .80); all displayed good to excellent internal consistency.”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(4, 284) = 1.97reported n.s. · recomputed p = .099
“F(4, 284) = 1.97, n.s.”
- ConsistentF(6, 282) = 3.87reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6, 282) = 3.87, p < .01”
- ConsistentF(9, 279) = 4.5reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(9, 279) = 4.50, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(2, 292) = 2.89reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .057
“F(2, 292) = 2.89, p = .06”
- ConsistentF(4, 344) = 4.69reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .001
“F(4, 344) = 4.69, p < .01”
- ConsistentF(6, 342) = 7.16reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(6, 342) = 7.16, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(9, 339) = 15.22reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(9, 339) = 15.22, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(2, 349) = 1.87reported p = .16 · recomputed p = .156
“F(2, 349) = 1.87, p = .16”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Study 1 non-Hispanic share is below the stated threshold
MinorThe limitations section says more than 80% of participants in both studies identified as non-Hispanic, but Study 1 reports 79.7%.
“the disproportionate number of participants identifying as Caucasian and Non-Hispanic in the study (more than 80% of participants in both studies).”
“identified as non-Hispanic (n = 235, 79.7%), Caucasian (n = 250, 84.7%)”
Study 2 variance increase does not match the stated model totals
MinorThe second model's reported 16.6% of explained variance is 12.5 percentage points above the first model's 4.1%, not the stated additional 11.5%.
Reported 11.5 · recomputed 12.5
“The ADRD factors block explained an additional 11.5% of the variance (beyond the demographics block) in DRA, Fchange(2, 342) = 23.51, p < .001.”
Study 1 overall anxiety mean conflicts with its exposure-group means
MinorUsing the reported exposure-group sizes of 73, 34, and 188 gives an overall DRA mean of about 1.46, rather than 1.50.
“participants in the present studies reported generally a low level of DRA (Mstudy1 = 1.50 and Mstudy2 = 1.96)”
“Participants without dementia exposure (M = 1.35, SD = .41) reported significantly lower level of DRA compared to those with genetic exposure (M = 1.50, SD = .46), p < .05. Participants with non-genetic exposure (M = 1.48, SD = .47) did not significantly differ from those without exposure (p = .16).”
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Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 37 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Cary L. A., 2017, The Gerontologist, 57, e27
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Self-citationAnticipated Stigma and Dementia-Related Anxiety in Middle-Aged and Older Adults
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- Authors
- Yun, S., & Maxfield, M.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Yun, Stacy
- Venue
- Educational Gerontology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2020-07-13
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 563-574
- ISSN
- 0360-1277 (ISSN-L)
- 1521-0472
- PMC
- PMC7434070
- OpenAlex
- W3041905807
- Cited by
- 26
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 2.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Educational Gerontology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R21AG052820)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- ageism, benevolent ageism, Alzheimer's disease and related dementias, gender differences, young adults, fear of dementia
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-09-28.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-09-28.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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