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Cited by 49Archaeological Research and ProtectionArchaeological and Geological StudiesArchaeology and ancient environmental studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 76 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

The Ideal Distribution Model and Archaeological Settlement Patterning

Open access
Weitzel, Elic M., Codding, Brian F.·2022·Environmental Archaeology
DOI 10.1080/14614103.2020.1803015
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Abstract

Human populations distribute themselves across landscapes in clearly patterned ways, but accurate and theoretically informed predictions and explanations of that patterning in the archaeological record can prove difficult. Recently, archaeologists have begun applying a unifying theoretical framework derived from population and behavioural ecology to understand human population distribution and movement: the ideal distribution model (IDM). The three variants of this IDM - the ideal free distribution, the ideal free distribution with an Allee effect, and the ideal despotic distribution - are capable of generating testable hypotheses concerning the colonisation of landscapes, the spatial distribution of populations, cooperation and competition, social hierarchy and inequality, and the impacts of subsistence on settlement patterns. Their success in addressing such wide-ranging research questions demonstrates that IDMs are not only helpful for analysing settlement patterns in relation to environmental factors, but for better understanding the social forces that impact population distribution, as well. There seem to be no geographic or temporal bounds to the utility of IDMs, and we look forward to the application of these models in ever more diverse settings.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This editorial reviews archaeological applications of ideal distribution models (IDMs) and argues they offer a unifying framework for explaining settlement patterning, population distribution, cooperation and competition, despotism, and subsistence–suitability relationships. It concludes that IDMs have broad geographic and temporal utility, while identifying the definition and validation of suitability as key challenges.

Key findings

  • IDMs comprise three variants—the ideal free distribution, the ideal free distribution with an Allee effect, and the ideal despotic distribution—which generate testable hypotheses about colonisation, spatial population distribution, cooperation and competition, social hierarchy and inequality, and subsistence impacts on settlement patterns.
  • Archaeological applications have expanded across five main areas: diachronic colonisation and migration, synchronic population distribution, cooperation and competition, despotism, and subsistence and suitability.
  • The paper reports successful applications across western and eastern North America, the Caribbean, western and eastern Europe, northern Africa, central Asia, and Oceania, in time periods ranging from 50,000 years ago to the early twentieth century; it also notes that Fretwell and Lucas (1969) has been cited more than 5000 times.
  • Defining suitability remains difficult, and most studies use static modern environmental proxies, though recent work models dynamic suitability and subsistence-specific suitability.

Methods

  • Design: editorial/review synthesising the theoretical foundations and archaeological applications of IDMs; no primary data collection or new statistical analysis.
  • Data: published archaeological, ethnographic, and behavioural ecology studies, including papers in the special issue, drawn from multiple regions and time periods.
  • Analysis: narrative synthesis organised around IDM variants and five application domains, with discussion of methodological challenges and future directions.

Limitations

  • Stated: defining suitability is one of the greatest challenges; archaeologists have not yet implemented a comprehensive strategy that first evaluates model predictions with ethnographic or experimental data and then links environmental proxies of suitability to actualised suitability (e.g. return rates) across varying population densities.
  • Stated: most studies assume suitability remains constant over time, even though suitability can change; evaluating when settlement dynamics take negative versus positive despotic form, and how trade-offs articulate within an IDM framework, remains under-explored.
  • Evident: as an editorial/review, it does not present new empirical tests or original data, and its conclusions rely on synthesis of cited case studies and special-issue papers.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/14614103.2020.1803015

Cites

71 of 71 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 76 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

Verify all 12 references — free account
  • Premisecitation

    Yaworsky and Codding (2018) showed that the Euro-American colonisation of Utah in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries conformed to predictions of the IFD, with settlers preferring areas with high moisture and agricultural potential.

    “Yaworsky and Codding (2018) showed that IDMs need not only be applied in prehistoric contexts by demonstrating that the Euro-American colonisation of Utah in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries conformed to predictions of the IFD, with settlers preferring areas with high moisture and agricultural potential.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yaworsky and Codding 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Winterhalder et al. (2010) showed that human settlement of the Northern Channel Islands of California conformed to an IFD using watershed attributes such as drainage size and beach length as suitability proxies.

    “Winterhalder et al. (2010)showed that human settlement of the Northern Channel Islands of California conformed to an IFD using watershed attributes such as drainage size and beach length as suitability proxies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Winterhalder et al. 2010 source
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Even a single temporal snapshot can capture the underlying ecological dynamics that structure the relationship between suitability and population density.

    “meaning that even a single temporal snapshot can capture the underlying ecological dynamics that structure the relationship between suitability and population density.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Populations are assumed to be at equilibrium at any one time.
  • Interpretationreasoning

    IDMs are useful for modelling the synchronic distribution of populations across a landscape.

    “Like diachronic analyses of colonisation and migration, IDMs are useful for modelling the synchronic distribution of populations across a landscape.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    From IDM dynamics, individuals should always settle in the more suitable habitat first.

    “From these dynamics, we can derive at least two qualitative predictions: (1) that individuals should always settle in the more suitable habitat first”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In the IDM, suitability declines as each new individual is added to a habitat (negative density dependence).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: By making optimal decisions individually, the population will distribute itself 'ideally' so that each individual obtains the same suitability value (i.e. is at equilibrium).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Under the IFD with negative density dependence, there are no restrictions to an individual's movement and no benefits to proximity to others.
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 19
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 37

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    The predicted pattern that more suitable habitats will have higher population densities holds across diverse modes of subsistence, both archaeologically and ethnographically, including hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, and farmers, as well as across varied forms of sociopolitical structure, including relatively egalitarian societies, emerging chiefdoms, and monarchies.

    “This predicted pattern holds across diverse modes of subsistence, both archaeologically and ethnographically, including hunter-gatherers (Tremayne and Winterhalder 2017), pastoralists (Moritz et al. 2015), and farmers (Yaworsky and Codding 2018), as well as across varied forms of sociopolitical structure, including relatively egalitarian societies (Allen and O'Connell 2008), emerging chiefdoms (”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Tremayne and Winterhalder 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Moritz et al. 2015 source
    • cites Yaworsky and Codding 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Kennett (2005) examined the colonisation and subsequent resettlement dynamics in the northern Channel Islands of California.

    “Kennett (2005) examined the colonisation and subsequent resettlement dynamics in the northern Channel Islands of California.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kennett 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Fretwell and Lucas (1969) outlined a model of habitat selection with three variants: the ideal free distribution, the ideal free distribution with an Allee effect, and the ideal dominance distribution (later known as the ideal despotic distribution).

    “Fretwell and Lucas (1969) outline a model of habitat selection with three variants: the ideal free distribution, the ideal free distribution with an Allee effect, and the ideal dominance distribution (later known as the ideal despotic distribution).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fretwell and Lucas 1969 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Recently, archaeologists have begun applying the ideal distribution model (IDM), a unifying theoretical framework derived from population and behavioural ecology, to understand human population distribution and movement.

    “Recently, archaeologists have begun applying a unifying theoretical framework derived from population and behavioural ecology to understand human population distribution and movement: the ideal distribution model (IDM).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Kennett, Anderson, and Winterhalder (2006) used the IFD to explain why the colonisation of Oceania was episodic: expansion was interrupted by pauses during which populations grew and subsistence intensified, thereby lowering habitat suitability and encouraging movement to lower-suitability islands.

    “Kennett, Anderson, and Winterhalder (2006) used the IFD to explain why the colonisation of Oceania was episodic: expansion was interrupted by pauses during which populations grew and subsistence intensified, thereby lowering habitat suitability and encouraging movement to lower-suitability islands.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kennett, Anderson, and Winterhalder 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Commonly, archaeologists look for relationships between site locations and environmental and geographic variables such as elevation, soil fertility, modelled production capacity, or climatic patterns to explain site distribution.

    “Commonly, archaeologists look for relationships between site locations and environmental and geographic variables such as elevation, soil fertility, modelled production capacity, or climatic patterns to explain site distribution (e.g.Contreras et al. 2018;Morgan 2009;Williams et al. 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Contreras et al. 2018 source
    • cites Morgan 2009 source
    • cites Williams et al. 2015 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Under the IFD with negative density dependence, individuals should settle in the most suitable habitat first and should only begin settling in the less suitable habitat once population density depresses suitability in the better habitat to the point where the next individual added would experience equal suitability in either habitat.

    “Thus individuals should settle in the most suitable habitat first (point i in Figure 1(a)) and should only begin settling in the less suitable habitat once population density depresses suitability in the better habitat to the point where the next individual added would experience equal suitability in either habitat (point ii to iii in Figure 1 (a)).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: In the IDM, suitability declines as each new individual is added to a habitat (negative density dependence).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: By making optimal decisions individually, the population will distribute itself 'ideally' so that each individual obtains the same suitability value (i.e. is at equilibrium).
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Under the IFD with negative density dependence, there are no restrictions to an individual's movement and no benefits to proximity to others.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Some researchers have examined the role of social factors in structuring the location and duration of human settlement.

    “Occasionally, researchers have also examined the role of social factors in structuring the location and duration of human settlement (McDonald and Veth 2012;Thompson, Meredith, and Prufer 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites McDonald and Veth 2012 source
    • cites Thompson, Meredith, and Prufer 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisereasoning

    Since these pioneering studies, archaeological applications of IDMs have focused on five main areas of inquiry: the diachronic colonisation of regions, the synchronic distribution of sites and populations across a landscape, the origins or strengthening of cooperation, the origins of despotism and social hierarchies, and the relationship between subsistence and suitability.

    “Since these pioneering studies, archaeological applications of IDMs have focused on five main areas of inquiry: the diachronic colonisation of regions, the synchronic distribution of sites and populations across a landscape, the origins or strengthening of cooperation, the origins of despotism and social hierarchies, and the relationship between subsistence and suitability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Codding and Jones (2013) showed that ethno-historic population densities in California follow IDM predictions, with higher population densities occurring in more suitable habitats.

    “For example, Codding and Jones (2013) showed that ethno-historic population densities in California follow IDM predictions, with higher population densities occurring in more suitable habitats.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Codding and Jones 2013 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Miller and Carmody (this issue) show that settlement dynamics shift from being largely 'free' in the early Holocene, to more Allee-like in the middle Holocene, and finally more despotic in the late Holocene.

    “Miller and Carmody (this issue) follow up on this work by showing that settlement dynamics shift from being largely 'free' in the early Holocene, to more Allee-like in the middle Holocene, and finally more despotic in the late Holocene.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miller and Carmody, this issue

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisenone given

    Since Kennett (2005), McClure, Jochim, and Barton (2006), and Kennett, Anderson, and Winterhalder (2006) first applied IDMs to archaeology, numerous applications have expanded their reach to a broad set of topics.

    “Since Kennett (2005), McClure, Jochim, and Barton (2006), and Kennett, Anderson, and Winterhalder (2006) first applied IDMs to archaeology, numerous applications have expanded their reach to a broad set of topics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kennett 2005 source
    • cites McClure, Jochim, and Barton 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kennett, Anderson, and Winterhalder 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Giovas and Fitzpatrick (2014) found that island area and primary production were good proxies for suitability that predicted the order of island settlement reasonably well and helped explain some deviations from IFD predictions in Ceramic Age colonisation of the Caribbean.

    “Giovas and Fitzpatrick (2014) explored the potential for the IFD to explain Ceramic Age colonisation of the Caribbean and found that island area and primary production were good proxies for suitability that predicted the order of island settlement reasonably well, and also helped to explain some interesting deviations from IFD predictions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Giovas and Fitzpatrick 2014 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The success of IDMs in addressing wide-ranging research questions demonstrates that IDMs are helpful not only for analysing settlement patterns in relation to environmental factors but also for better understanding the social forces that impact population distribution.

    “Their success in addressing such wide-ranging research questions demonstrates that IDMs are not only helpful for analysing settlement patterns in relation to environmental factors, but for better understanding the social forces that impact population distribution, as well.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Allee effects result in an increase in suitability with each individual added to the habitat (positive density dependence) up to some threshold, establishing an optimal group size.

    “That Allee Effects result in an increase in suitability with each individual added to the habitat (termed positive density dependence) up to some threshold also establishes an optimal group size”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    McClure, Jochim, and Barton (2006) employed the IFD (with and without Allee effects) to understand how climate change drove agricultural intensification which reduced the suitability of agricultural land in Neolithic Spain, leading people to move to new habitats and adopt new technologies.

    “McClure, Jochim, and Barton (2006) employed the IFD (with and without Allee effects) to understand how climate change drove agricultural intensification which reduced the suitability of agricultural land in Neolithic Spain, leading people to move to new habitats and adopt new technologies (McClure, Barton, and Jochim 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites McClure, Jochim, and Barton 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McClure, Barton, and Jochim 2009 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    IDMs continue to be useful in conventional applications, and recently these half-century-old models have inspired novel and exciting applications, particularly in archaeology.

    “IDMs continue to be useful in such conventional applications, but recently, these half-centuryold models have inspired novel and exciting applications, particularly in the field of archaeology”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Codding and Bird 2015 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Some archaeologists have explored connections between settlement and demographic change, following longstanding hypotheses that describe the expansion of human settlements into new areas due to population density.

    “Others have explored connections to demographic change, following longstanding hypotheses that describe the expansion of human settlements into new areas due to population density (Anderson 1990;Binford 1968).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Anderson 1990
    • cites Binford 1968

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Allen and O'Connell (2008; O'Connell and Allen 2012) developed an ideal distribution framework to evaluate the Pleistocene colonisation of Sahul, arguing that rapid colonisation was likely driven by negative density dependence, which led individuals to favour unoccupied habitats even when suitability declined only slightly.

    “Allen and O'Connell (2008;O'Connell and Allen 2012) developed an ideal distribution framework to evaluate the Pleistocene colonisation of Sahul (modern day Australia and New Guinea), arguing that rapid colonisation was likely driven by negative density dependence, which led individuals to favour unoccupied habitats even when suitability declined only slightly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Allen and O'Connell 2008 source
    • cites O'Connell and Allen 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There appear to be no geographic or temporal bounds to the utility of IDMs.

    “There seem to be no geographic or temporal bounds to the utility of IDMs”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    These three versions of IDMs have been applied to many different species and circumstances to develop predictions for how non-human and human organisms should distribute themselves across a landscape.

    “These three versions of ideal distribution models (IDMs) have been applied to many different species and circumstances to develop predictions for how non-human (Hendrickx, Palmer, and Travis 2013;McNickle and Brown 2014;Nicolai et al. 2014) and human (Disma, Sokolowski, and Tonneau 2011;Moritz et al. 2014aMoritz et al. , 2015Moritz et al. , 2014b;;Morris and Kingston 2002) organisms should”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hendrickx, Palmer, and Travis 2013 source
    • cites McNickle and Brown 2014 source
    • cites Nicolai et al. 2014 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The distance to important trade and exchange centres serves as an important predictor of settlement.

    “Prufer et al. (2017) showed that the distance to important trade and exchange centres serves as an important predictor of settlement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prufer et al. 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    IDMs are not only helpful for analyzing settlement patterns in relation to environmental factors, but for better understanding social forces that impact population distribution.

    “Their success in addressing such wide-ranging research questions demonstrates that IDMs are not only helpful for analyzing settlement patterns in relation to environmental factors, but for better understanding social forces that impact population distribution, as well.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Population distribution is driven by the relationship between population density and habitat suitability.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Weitzel et al. (this issue) use site location data to explore how plant management and domestication in mid-Holocene eastern North America created a novel Allee effect that incentivised within-group cooperation while simultaneously inspiring intergroup violence.

    “Weitzel et al. (this issue) build on these findings by using site location data to explore how plant management and domestication in mid-Holocene eastern North America created a novel Allee effect that incentivised within-group cooperation while simultaneously inspiring intergroup violence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weitzel et al., this issue

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The northward spread of maize farming in the southwestern United States occurred only when population density increased enough to make farming in lower suitability habitats profitable.

    “Codding et al. (this issue) explore how the northward spread of maize farming in the southwestern United States occurred only when population density increased enough to make farming in lower suitability habitats profitable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Codding et al. (this issue)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Understanding how trade-offs between defending habitats and allowing settlement articulate within an IDM framework to produce varied outcomes remains under-explored.

    “Yet understanding how these trade-offs articulate within an IDM framework to produce varied outcomes remains under-explored.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Habitat suitability can change for a variety of reasons and can impact the dynamics of IDMs.

    “habitat suitability can change for a variety of reasons and can impact the dynamics of IDMs (Kennett and Winterhalder 2008;McClure, Jochim, and Barton 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kennett and Winterhalder 2008 source
    • cites McClure, Jochim, and Barton 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Codding et al. (this issue) use a proxy for agricultural suitability that predicts the historic distribution of farmers in the Colorado Plateau.

    “Codding et al. (this issue) make a move in this direction by using a proxy for agricultural suitability that predicts the historic distribution of farmers in the Colorado Plateau”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Codding et al., this issue

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Einarsson (2015) found that in Viking-aged Iceland, higher suitability habitats were defended with formal fencing while lower suitability habitats were not, indicating negative IDD dynamics followed the settlement of more suitable habitats.

    “Einarsson (2015) explored despotism in the Viking-aged settlement of Iceland and finds that higher suitability habitats were defended with formal fencing while lower suitability habitats were not, indicating negative IDD dynamics followed the settlement of more suitable habitats.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Einarsson 2015 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Kennett and Winterhalder (2008) argued that while dispersion across Polynesia is consistent with IFD dynamics, more rapid expansion after c. 1000 BP aligns better with an IDD.

    “Kennett and Winterhalder (2008) employed the model in this form to argue that while dispersion across Polynesia is consistent with IFD dynamics (Kennett, Anderson, and Winterhalder 2006), more rapid expansion after c. 1000 BP aligns better with an IDD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kennett and Winterhalder 2008 source
    • cites Kennett, Anderson, and Winterhalder 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Winterhalder and colleagues (2010) used a Bayesian model to iteratively evaluate the interaction between settlement and proxies of suitability.

    “A middle-ground strategy that falls between these two approaches was undertaken by Winterhalder and colleagues (2010), who used a Bayesian model to iteratively evaluate the interaction between settlement and proxies of suitability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Winterhalder et al. 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    These locations differed for Archaic foragers and Formative farmers in southern Utah.

    “These locations differed for Archaic foragers and Formative farmers in southern Utah.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vernon et al. (this issue)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Prufer et al. (2017) argued that positive despotism-and with it, social hierarchy, inequality, and complexity-developed out of earlier ideal free dynamics in southern Belize during the Classic Maya Period.

    “Prufer et al. (2017) argued that positive despotismand with it, social hierarchy, inequality, and complexitydeveloped out of earlier ideal free dynamics in southern Belize during the Classic Maya Period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prufer et al. 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Changes in suitability throughout the Holocene may have structured settlement dynamics.

    “Miller and Carmody (this issue) further illustrate that suitability is not constant by coupling paleoenvironmental records with settlement data to illustrate how changes in suitability throughout the Holocene may have structured settlement dynamics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miller and Carmody (this issue)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These models are only beginning to realise their potential in archaeology.

    “suggests that these models are only beginning to realise their potential in archaeology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Population distribution is driven by the relationship between population density and habitat suitability.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Harvey (2019) showed that late period archaeological sites in the Kern River watershed of California Sierra Nevada favoured lower suitability locations, which they interpret as a strategy to maintain access to key plant resources (acorns and pine nuts) while avoiding competition in more suitable locations.

    “Harvey (2019) showed that late period archaeological sites in the Kern River watershed of California Sierra Nevada favoured lower suitability locations, which they interpret as a strategy to maintain access to key plant resources (acorns and pine nuts) while avoiding competition in more suitable locations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harvey 2019

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    IDMs fundamentally assume that population distribution is driven by the relationship between population density and habitat suitability.

    “While IDMs fundamentally assume that population distribution is driven by the relationship between population density and habitat suitability”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    To date, researchers have typically selected an environmental metric as a proxy for suitability and proceeded to evaluate whether settlement or population density conforms to predictions given that metric.

    “To date, researchers have typically selected an environmental metric as a proxy for suitability and proceeded to evaluate whether settlement or population density conforms to predictions given that metric.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Vernon et al. (this issue) take the opposite approach by assuming that populations will settle down following an IDM, and then using settlement patterns to identify which environmental variables were most important in determining settlement decisions.

    “Vernon et al. (this issue) take the opposite approach by assuming that populations will settle down following an IDM, and then using settlement patterns to identify which environmental variables were most important in determining settlement decisions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vernon et al., this issue

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The same cost-benefit logic should apply to positive despotism: a despotic individual would only allow individuals to settle if the loss in suitability were worthwhile.

    “The same should be true for the costs of positive despotism where a despotic individual would only allow individuals to settle if the loss in suitability were worthwhile.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Defining suitability remains one of the greatest challenges to archaeological applications of IDMs, but it is also one of the greatest opportunities.

    “Defining suitability remains one of the greatest challenges to archaeological applications of IDMs, but it is also one of the greatest opportunities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Kennett et al. (2009; Jazwa et al. 2019) argued for the Channel Islands in California that earlier IFD dynamics gave way to despotism as increased population packing and subsistence intensification led to unequal access to resources.

    “Kennett et al. (2009;Jazwa et al. 2019) made a similar argument for the Channel Islands in California, where earlier IFD dynamics gave way to despotism as increased population packing and subsistence intensification led to unequal access to resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kennett et al. 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jazwa et al. 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Ecological theory suggests that individuals should only defend habitats from incoming settlers if the benefits of doing so are worth the costs.

    “Ecological theory suggests that individuals should only defend habitats from incoming settlers if the benefits of doing so are worth the costs (Brown 1969;Dyson-Hudson and Smith 1978).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brown 1969

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dyson-Hudson and Smith 1978 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Anthropogenic fires set by Aboriginal Australians in the 1950s elevated habitat suitability, impacting land use and settlement decisions.

    “Bliege Bird et al. (2020) demonstrated that habitat suitability was elevated by anthropogenic fires set by Aboriginal Australians in the 1950s, impacting land use and settlement decisions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bliege Bird et al. 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Validation is required before any proxy of suitability can be considered robust.

    “Such validation is required before any proxy of suitability can be considered robust.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Assuming ideal distribution dynamics, suitability can be deconstructed into its constituent components based on where people chose to settle.

    “Vernon et al. (this issue) use a variant of maximum entropy (MaxEnt) modelling to show that, assuming ideal distribution dynamics, suitability can be deconstructed into its constituent components based on where people chose to settle.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vernon et al. (this issue)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The land-use systems of agricultural and pastoralist populations were so different that the suitability of a habitat was not the same for both.

    “Plekhov and Levine (this issue) use a large dataset of site locations from Afghanistan to argue that the land-use systems of agricultural and pastoralist populations were so different that the suitability of a habitat was not the same for both.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Plekhov and Levine (this issue)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    IDM modelling exercises need not be regional in scope.

    “Theseattempts to include more historically particularistic attributes in IDMs show that such modelling exercises need not be regional in scope.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Population distribution is driven by the relationship between population density and habitat suitability.
48 of 48

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In the IDM, suitability declines as each new individual is added to a habitat (negative density dependence).

    “In the model, suitability declines as each new individual isadded to a habitat (a phenomenon termed negative density dependence)”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    By making optimal decisions individually, the population will distribute itself 'ideally' so that each individual obtains the same suitability value (i.e. is at equilibrium).

    “by making optimal decisions individually, the population will distribute itself 'ideally' so that each individual obtains the same suitability value (i.e. is at equilibrium).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Populations are assumed to be at equilibrium at any one time.

    “According to the IDM, populations are assumed to be at equilibrium at any one time”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Under the IFD with negative density dependence, there are no restrictions to an individual's movement and no benefits to proximity to others.

    “Under the Ideal 'Free' Distribution (IFD) with negative density dependence (Figure 1(a)), there are no restrictions to an individual's movement and no benefits to proximity to others.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Population distribution is driven by the relationship between population density and habitat suitability.

    “IDMs fundamentally assume that population distribution is driven by the relationship between population density and habitat suitability”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Suitability varies as a function of population density following Greene and Stamps (2001, eq. 1).

    “Suitability varies as a function of population density followingGreene and Stamps (2001, eq. 1).”
6 of 6

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. Brown J. L., 1969, The Wilson Bulletin, 81, 293
  2. Hitchcock R. K., 1989, Anthropos, 84, 47
  3. Miller D. S., 2016, Tennessee. Tennessee Archaeology, 8, 78
  4. Morris D. W., 2002, Evolutionary Ecology Research, 4, 787
  5. Tilley C., 2010, Interpreting Landscapes: Geologies, Topographies, Identities

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Metadata

Authors
Weitzel, E. M., & Codding, B. F.
Affiliations
  • University of Connecticut (US)
  • University of Utah (US)
Corresponding author
Weitzel, Elic M.
ORCID
Venue
Environmental Archaeology
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2020-08-10
Volume
27
Issue
4
Pages
349-356
ISSN
  • 1461-4103 (ISSN-L)
  • 1749-6314
DOI
10.1080/14614103.2020.1803015
OpenAlex
W3048914038
Cited by
49
References
70
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 4
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Environmental Archaeology (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeological Research and Protection
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Archaeological and Geological Studies
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
Keywords
ideal free distribution, Allee effect, settlement patterns, human population distribution, behavioral ecology, population ecology, competition and cooperation, social hierarchy, social inequality, population distribution

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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