Energy efficient large-scale storage of liquid hydrogen
Open accessAbstract
The world’s largest liquid hydrogen storage tanks were constructed in the mid-1960s at the NASA Kennedy Space Center. These two vacuum-jacketed, perlite powder insulated tanks, still in service today, have 3,200 m 3 of useable capacity. In 2018, construction began on an additional storage tank at Launch Complex 39B. This new tank will give an additional storage capacity of 4,700 m 3 for a total on-site storage capacity of roughly 8,000 m 3 . NASA’s new Space Launch System (SLS) heavy lift rocket for the Artemis program includes an LH 2 tank that makes up the bulk of the vehicle, holding 2,033 m 3 of LH 2 in its 8.4-m diameter by 40-m height. The new storage tank includes two new energy-efficient technologies: a glass bubbles insulation system in lieu of perlite, and an Integrated Refrigeration and Storage (IRAS) heat exchanger for controlled storage capability. The evacuated glass bubbles insulation system is based on the prior two decades of research to prove the thermal performance benefits as well as the mechanical and vacuum integrity; and has been shown to reduce LH 2 boiloff by 46% versus perlite in field demonstrations. The IRAS capability is centered on a heat exchanger system that is built within the inner vessel to reject heat from the bulk liquid through the future implementation of an external helium refrigerator. Controlled storage via IRAS, when fully implemented, will provide full control of the ullage pressure, zero boiloff, and even production of densified LH 2 pending its adoption on future launch vehicles. The design basics are described along with main construction and testing processes involved. The key features of the new technology items and implications on simplified operations and long-term energy savings are addressed.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
NASA’s new 4,732 m³ liquid hydrogen storage sphere at Launch Complex 39B combines evacuated glass bubbles insulation with an internal Integrated Refrigeration and Storage (IRAS) heat exchanger for future active thermal control. The paper describes the design, construction, and testing approach, citing prior field data showing 46% lower LH2 boiloff with glass bubbles versus perlite and projected IRAS benefits including zero boiloff and densification.
Key findings
- The new tank adds 4,732 m³ of usable LH2 capacity, bringing total on-site storage to roughly 8,000 m³ alongside the two existing 3,200 m³ Apollo-era tanks.
- Evacuated glass bubbles insulation is predicted to give a thermal performance benefit of 40–100% compared to high-density perlite powder; field testing of a 190 m³ VJ LH2 sphere at Stennis Space Center showed an average boiloff reduction of 46% over three thermal cycles in six years.
- The internal IRAS heat exchanger uses 38 mm 316L stainless steel tubing with 43.3 m total coil length and roughly 5.2 m² heat exchange area, designed for future cold helium refrigeration to enable ullage pressure control, zero boiloff, zero-loss transfer, and LH2 densification to temperatures as low as 14 K.
- A prior 125 m³ IRAS demonstration at KSC in 2015–16 led to economic analysis showing that for every dollar spent on electricity, seven dollars in LH2 could be saved.
Methods
- Design and construction description of a new 4,732 m³ vacuum-jacketed spherical LH2 storage tank at Launch Complex 39B, with inner vessel SA240 Grade 304 stainless steel, outer sphere SA516 Grade 70 carbon steel, 25.3 m outer diameter, 1.7 m annular space, and specified maximum boiloff NER of 0.048% (600 gal/day, 2,271 L/day).
- Passive insulation approach using 3M type K1 glass bubbles (nominal 60-micron hollow borosilicate microspheres, bulk settled density ~65 kg/m³) in the annular space instead of perlite, based on prior cryostat and 1000-liter spherical tank thermal performance testing.
- Active thermal control approach using an internal IRAS heat exchanger with upper and lower manifolds at 25% and 75% fill levels, fed by 51 mm 304L stainless steel piping through the vacuum annulus, planned for future connection to a closed cold-helium process cycle.
- Construction and commissioning plan includes ASME Section VIII NDE, cold shock test with liquid nitrogen, helium mass spectrometer testing, and two vacuum retention tests before and after glass bubble installation.
Limitations
- The paper states no formal limitations section.
- Evident from the text: the new tank’s construction completion was estimated for late-2021 and commissioning planned for fall-2021, so the paper reports design and planned testing rather than operational performance of the new tank.
- Evident from the text: IRAS is described as a future implementation; the heat exchanger is built within the inner vessel but the external helium refrigerator and full controlled-storage capability are not yet implemented.
- Evident from the text: glass bubbles cost roughly three times more than perlite on a materials basis, though the paper argues total build cost and long-term value are the main factors.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
4 of 14 cited sources checked · 2 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
The evacuated glass bubbles insulation system reduces LH2 boiloff by 46% versus perlite in field demonstrations.
“The evacuated glass bubbles insulation system is based on the prior two decades of research to prove the thermal performance benefits as well as the mechanical and vacuum integrity; and has been shown to reduce LH2 boiloff by 46% versus perlite in field demonstrations.”
- Also stated in: § 3.2 Glass Bubbles · plain
“Field testing of a 190-m 3 (50,000-gal) VJ LH2 sphere at Stennis Space Center gave an average boiloff reduction of 46% over three thermal cycles in six years [21].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites [21] Sass, 2010, Glass bubbles insulation for liquid hydrogen storage tanks, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, AIP source
The Performance Testing and Conclusion sections report a 44% reduction in liquid-hydrogen boiloff versus perlite in the full-scale field application, not 46%. The Introduction assigns the 46% figure to liquid-nitrogen boiloff in earlier 1000 L tank testing. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [2] Fesmire, 2017, Research and development history of glass bubbles bulk-fill thermal insulation systems for large-scale cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage tanks
- Also stated in: § 3.2 Glass Bubbles · plain
- Premisecitation
In the IRAS tank, the pressure and temperature of the liquid are controlled by rejecting the incoming heat through cold helium gas circulated through the internal cooling coil, thereby eliminating the need to vent boiloff gas.
“In the IRAS tank the pressure and temperature of the liquid are controlled by simply rejecting the incoming heat through the cold helium gas being circulated through the internal cooling coil (or heat exchanger) [10], thereby eliminating the need to vent boiloff gas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] Swanger, 2015, Modification of liquid hydrogen tank for integrated refrigeration and storage, IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering source
- Premisecitation
Economic analysis showed that for every dollar spent on electricity to power the IRAS system, seven dollars in LH2 could be saved.
“Following demonstration testing of a 125 m 3 IRAS system at KSC in 2015-16, economic analysis showed that for every dollar spent on electricity to power the system, seven dollars in LH2 could be saved [13].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [13] Notardonato, 2017, Final test results for the ground operations demonstration unit for liquid hydrogen, Cryogenics source
The Introduction and Section 2 describe the 2015–16 testing of a 125 m³ IRAS system, and Section 4.1 says zero-loss chilldown allows more economical operation. Our copy does not report an economic analysis or the claimed seven dollars of LH2 saved per dollar of electricity; searches for the ratio and electricity costs found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
The glass bubbles system was determined to perform reliably in annular space applications including large-scale spheres.
“Based on 15 years of research, testing, and development by a national team led by the Cryogenics Test Laboratory, this glass bubble system was determined to perform reliably in annular space applications including large-scale spheres.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
The glass bubbles insulation system is predicted to give a thermal performance benefit of 40 to 100% compared to high density (132 kg/m3) perlite powder under typical cold vacuum pressure of 10 to 30 millitorr.
“Note that the typical operating condition for site-built VJ LH2 tanks includes a cold vacuum pressure (CVP) of about 10 to 30 millitorr.Therefore, the bubbles are predicted to give a thermal performance benefit of from 40 to 100% compared to the high density (132 kg/m 3 ) perlite powder traditionally used [20].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] Allen, 2004 source
- Rests on an assumption: The typical operating condition for site-built VJ LH2 tanks includes a cold vacuum pressure of about 10 to 30 millitorr.
- Interpretationown data
The driver for the adoption of the glass bubbles insulation system is the substantial energy/product savings.
“The driver for the adoption of the glass bubbles insulation system is the substantial energy/product savings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The total heat load transmitted to the inner vessel is determined by the combination of evacuated insulation, structural supports, and piping penetrations.
“The three key ingredients of thermal performance for an LH2 tank design are: evacuated insulation; structural supports; and piping penetrations.The total heat load being transmitted to the inner vessel is determined by the combination of these three interdependent factors [7].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] Fesmire, 2019, Advanced cryogenic insulation systems source
- Premisecitation
A study of the Space Shuttle Program over 30 years showed that about half of the LH2 purchased was not used to launch the vehicle into space but was lost due to combined heat leak through the supply chain.
“A study of the Space Shuttle Program over 30 years showed that about half of the LH2 purchased was not used to launch the vehicle into space but was lost due to combined heat leak through the supply chain [12].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12] Partridge, 2012, Fractional consumption of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen during the space shuttle program, in Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, AIP source
- May combine two claims. 3
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 1
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationGlass bubbles do not break under crush, vibration, and settling tests.
“The conclusions were consistent across all tests: bubbles are better; bubbles do not compact; bubbles do not break; bubbles are easy to manage.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationControlled storage via IRAS, when fully implemented, will provide full control of the ullage pressure, zero boiloff, and even production of densified LH2 pending its adoption on future launch vehicles.
“Controlled storage via IRAS, when fully implemented, will provide full control of the ullage pressure, zero boiloff, and even production of densified LH2 pending its adoption on future launch vehicles [3].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Notardonato, 2017, IRAS maximizes cryogenic process efficiency, Cold Facts, Cryogenic Society of America
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: The 125 m3 IRAS pathfinder test program proved feasibility and quantified performance benefits including ullage pressure control, zero boiloff, and liquid densification.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationGlass bubbles do not compact under crush, vibration, and settling tests.
“The conclusions were consistent across all tests: bubbles are better; bubbles do not compact; bubbles do not break; bubbles are easy to manage.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
The paper relies on this without support.
The cost of glass bubbles is roughly three times the cost of perlite powder.
“The cost of the glass bubbles is roughly 3x the cost of perlite powder.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The typical operating condition for site-built VJ LH2 tanks includes a cold vacuum pressure of about 10 to 30 millitorr.
“Note that the typical operating condition for site-built VJ LH2 tanks includes a cold vacuum pressure (CVP) of about 10 to 30 millitorr.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 125 m3 IRAS pathfinder test program proved feasibility and quantified performance benefits including ullage pressure control, zero boiloff, and liquid densification.
“This pathfinder test program proved the feasibility and quantified the performance benefits for an IRAS system including ullage pressure control, zero boiloff, and liquid densification, and laid the groundwork for infusion of the technology into the current sphere.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The extensive cryostat database was used for recommendations in insulation choices for NASA's new large-scale storage tank at Kennedy Space Center and is serving as materials reference data for a DOE/Shell project and a previous DOE project for automotive hydrogen storage tanks.
“This extensive database was used for recommendations in insulation choices made by NASA in the new large-scale storage tank at NASA Kennedy Space Center [6] and is currently serving as the materials reference data for a Department of Energy (DOE)/Shell International funded project [7] as well as a previous DOE project for automotive hydrogen storage tanks [8].”
From Simulation test platform for the controlled storage and transfer of liquid hydrogen (2024) · cites this paper as [6]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe total on-site storage capacity at LC-39B is about 8000 m3.
“The total on-site storage capacity at LC-39B is about 8000 m3.417,418”
From Strategies To Improve the Performance of Hydrogen Storage Systems by Liquefaction Methods: A Comprehensive Review (2023) · cites this paper as [418]
The Abstract says the new tank at Launch Complex 39B will add 4,700 m³, bringing total on-site capacity to roughly 8,000 m³. It describes that total as a future capacity, not one already available, while the claim says the capacity “is” about 8,000 m³. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Construction start is given as both 2018 and mid-2019
MinorThe introduction says construction of the new tank began in 2018, while the tank-construction section says it began in mid-2019.
“In 2018, construction began on an additional storage tank at Launch Complex 39B.”
“Construction began in mid-2019 with completion estimated for late-2021.”
Cites
Standardization in cryogenic insulation systems testing and performance data
Fesmire, J. E. (2015) · Physics Procedia · doi:10.1016/j.phpro.2015.06.205 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationNotardonato, W. U., Swanger, A. M., Fesmire, J. E., Jumper, K. M., Johnson, W. L., & Tomsik, T. M. (2017) · IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering · doi:10.1088/1757-899x/278/1/012012 · Cited by 73 · cited 1× · see citing works
“A closed cold-helium process cycle is planned to reject the ambient heat load for zero boiloff (ZBO) operations and additional margin for LH2 densification to temperatures as low as 14 K [8,9].”
Self-citationAdvances in Microsphere Insulation Systems
Allen, M. S. (2004) · AIP Conference Proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.1774735 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Thermal Performance Testing of Glass Microspheres under Cryogenic Vacuum Conditions
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Self-citationCRYOGENIC THERMAL PERFORMANCE TESTING OF BULK-FILL AND AEROGEL INSULATION MATERIALS
Scholtens, B. E., Fesmire, J. E., Sass, J. P., Augustynowicz, S. D., Heckle, K. W., Weisend, J. G., Barclay, J., Breon, S., Demko, J., DiPirro, M., et al. (2008) · AIP Conference Proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.2908517 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationSass, J. P., Fesmire, J. E., Nagy, Z. F., et al. (2008) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.2908497 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationFractional consumption of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen during the space shuttle program
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GLASS BUBBLES INSULATION FOR LIQUID HYDROGEN STORAGE TANKS
Sass, J. P., Cyr, W. W. S., Barrett, T. M., Baumgartner, R. G., Lott, J. W., Fesmire, J. E., & Weisend, J. G. (2010) · AIP Conference Proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.3422430 · Cited by 29 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Field testing of a 190-m(3) (50,000-gal) VJ LH2 sphere at Stennis Space Center gave an average boiloff reduction of 46% over three thermal cycles in six years [21].”
MethodSelf-citationFinal test results for the ground operations demonstration unit for liquid hydrogen
Notardonato, W. U., Swanger, A. M., Fesmire, J. E., Jumper, K. M., Johnson, W. L., & Tomsik, T. M. (2017) · Cryogenics · doi:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2017.10.008 · Cited by 28 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Following demonstration testing of a 125 m(3) IRAS system at KSC in 2015-16, economic analysis showed that for every dollar spent on electricity to power the system, seven dollars in LH2 could be saved [13].”
MethodSelf-citationCOST-EFFICIENT STORAGE OF CRYOGENS
Fesmire, J. E., Sass, J. P., Nagy, Z. F., Sojourner, S. J., Morris, D. L., Augustynowicz, S. D., Weisend, J. G., Barclay, J., Breon, S. R., Demko, J. A., et al. (2008) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.2908498 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationLarge scale production of densified hydrogen to the triple point and below
Swanger, A. M., Notardonato, W. U., Fesmire, J. E., Jumper, K. M., Johnson, W. L., & Tomsik, T. M. (2017) · IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering · doi:10.1088/1757-899x/278/1/012013 · Cited by 22 · cited 1× · see citing works
“A closed cold-helium process cycle is planned to reject the ambient heat load for zero boiloff (ZBO) operations and additional margin for LH2 densification to temperatures as low as 14 K [8,9].”
Self-citationInitial Test Results of Laboratory Scale Hydrogen Liquefaction and Densification System
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“The IRAS technology is also built on the prior two decades of research led by the Cryogenics Test Laboratory to develop liquid hydrogen operations that are energy efficient, operationally effective, and safe by combining active and passive thermal control in an integral design approach [4-6].”
MethodIntegrated heat exchanger design for a cryogenic storage tank
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“The heat exchanger design, influenced by prior IRAS tank demonstrations [11], is shown in Figure 4.”
BackgroundSelf-citationGround operations demonstration unit for liquid hydrogen initial test results
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Self-citationModification of a liquid hydrogen tank for integrated refrigeration and storage
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“In the IRAS tank the pressure and temperature of the liquid are controlled by simply rejecting the incoming heat through the cold helium gas being circulated through the internal cooling coil (or heat exchanger) [10], thereby eliminating the need to vent boiloff gas.”
BackgroundSelf-citationAdvanced cryogenic insulation systems
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“The total heat load being transmitted to the inner vessel is determined by the combination of these three interdependent factors [7].”
BackgroundSelf-citationVibration considerations for cryogenic tanks using glass bubbles insulation
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Self-citationNumerical modeling of propellant boil-off in a cryogenic storage tank
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Notardonato, 2017, IRAS maximizes cryogenic process efficiency, Cold Facts, Cryogenic Society of America, 33, 26
- Fesmire, 2004, 49, 612
- Allen, 2004, 49, 619
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“The most significant advantage of glass bubbles is the higher thermal performance — proven to reduce LH 2 boiloff by 46% versus perlite in field testing [4] — which leads to lower, long term operating costs.”
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“…extensive database was used for recommendations in insulation choices made by NASA in the new large-scale storage tank at NASA Kennedy Space Center [6] and is currently serving as the materials reference data for a Department of Energy (DOE)/Shell International funded project [7] as well as a…”
MethodSelf-citationThermally efficient internal support structures in cryogenic applications: A comprehensive review
Gunarathne, U., Baduge, S. K., Thilakarathna, S., Costa, S., & Mendis, P. (2025) · International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2025.110283 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Dynamic simulation of a liquefied hydrogen export terminal
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Cryogenic storage safety: Experimental evaluation of insulation under extreme conditions
Hajhariri, A., Eberwein, R., Camplese, D., Scarponi, G. E., Cozzani, V., & Seidlitz, H. (2026) · Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries · doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2026.105961 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sun, B., & Vilcassim, M. H. (2026) · Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries · doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2026.105970 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Optimized para fraction of liquid hydrogen for efficient liquefaction and storage
Chang, H.-M., Bang, S. H., Kim, H. J., Baik, J. H., & Fesmire, J. E. (2025) · IOP Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering · doi:10.1088/1757-899x/1327/1/012093 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationLarge-scale hydrogen refuelling infrastructure in ports
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“NASA's Kennedy Space Centre built the first large LH 2 storage tank in the 1960s, with a usable capacity of 3200 m 3 [80].”
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Self-citationSmall-scale industrial hydrogen liquefaction and refrigeration
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“(cid:2) Terminal/bunkering tank refrigeration: As the new world’s largest storage sphere built at NASA Kennedy Space Center indicates, relatively minimal refrigeration capacity is required to prevent boiloff from even the largest storage tanks, if properly insulated [5].”
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Optimization of Thermal Insulation for Liquid Hydrogen Storage TanksPreprint
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Mechanical Analysis of a Multi-Layered Spherical Liquid Hydrogen Storage Tank with PerforationPreprint
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Fracture Toughness Evaluation by a Large-Scale Test under Hydrogen Liquefaction Temperature
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- Authors
- Fesmire, J., Swanger, A., Jacobson, J., & Notardonato, W.
- Affiliations
- Kennedy Space Center (US)
- ORCID
- Swanger, A
- Venue
- IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
- Publisher
- IOP Publishing
- Published
- 2022-05-01
- Volume
- 1240
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 012088
- ISSN
- 1757-8981 (ISSN-L)
- 1757-899X
- OpenAlex
- W4293245286
- Semantic Scholar
- 40f0f8b973b3c97fb9ba03e3c87bf78e81986a96
- Cited by
- 59
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 20.14
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- IOP Conference Series Materials Science and Engineering (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Spacecraft and Cryogenic Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Rocket and propulsion systems research
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Superconducting Materials and Applications
- Keywords
- liquid hydrogen storage, helium refrigerator, Space Launch System, Kennedy Space Center, energy efficiency, thermal performance
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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