Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences
Open accessAbstract
Vitamin D deficiency is now recognized as a pandemic. The major cause of vitamin D deficiency is the lack of appreciation that sun exposure in moderation is the major source of vitamin D for most humans. Very few foods naturally contain vitamin D, and foods that are fortified with vitamin D are often inadequate to satisfy either a child's or an adult's vitamin D requirement. Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets in children and will precipitate and exacerbate osteopenia, osteoporosis, and fractures in adults. Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with increased risk of common cancers, autoimmune diseases, hypertension, and infectious diseases. A circulating level of 25-hydroxyvitamin D of >75 nmol/L, or 30 ng/mL, is required to maximize vitamin D's beneficial effects for health. In the absence of adequate sun exposure, at least 800-1000 IU vitamin D3/d may be needed to achieve this in children and adults. Vitamin D2 may be equally effective for maintaining circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D when given in physiologic concentrations.
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Healthy serum 25(OH)D levels are considered ≥50 nmol/L.
“Healthy serum 25(OH)D levels are considered ≥50 nmol/L [288]”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [288]
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Zhang, M., Pan, G.-T., Guo, J.-F., Li, B., Qin, L., & Zhang, Z. (2015) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu7105398 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Mehta, S., Hunter, D. J., Mugusi, F. M., Spiegelman, D. L., Manji, K. P., Giovannucci, E. L., Hertzmark, E., Msamanga, G., & Fawzi, W. W. (2009) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/605699 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Chronic Iron Deficiency as an Emerging Risk Factor for Osteoporosis: A Hypothesis
Toxqui, L., & Vaquero, M. P. (2015) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu7042324 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Vitamin D Deficiency Induces Early Signs of Aging in Human Bone, Increasing the Risk of Fracture
Busse, B., Bale, H., Zimmermann, E. A., Panganiban, B., Barth, H. D., Carriero, A., Vettorazzi, E., Zustin, J., Hahn, M. P., Ager, J. W., et al. (2013) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3006286 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Calcium and vitamin D in bone fracture healing and post-traumatic bone turnover
Fischer, V., Haffner‐Luntzer, M., Amling, M., & Ignatius, A. A. (2018) · European Cells and Materials · doi:10.22203/ecm.v035a25 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Vuolo, L., Somma, C. D., Faggiano, A., & Colao, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2012.00058 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Vitamin D Deficiency and Its Association with Thyroid Disease
Mackawy, A. M. H., Al-Ayed, B. M., & Al-Rashidi, B. M. (2013) · International Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.12816/0006054 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Significance Of Nutritional Value Of Fish For Human Health
Balami, S., Sharma, A., & Karn, R. (2019) · Malaysian Journal of Halal Research · doi:10.2478/mjhr-2019-0012 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Clark, A. P., & Mach, N. (2016) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00627 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Nutraceuticals’ Novel Formulations: The Good, the Bad, the Unknown and Patents Involved
Helal, N. A., Eassa, H. A., Amer, A. M., Eltokhy, M. A., Edafiogho, I. O., & Nounou, M. I. (2019) · Recent Patents on Drug Delivery & Formulation · doi:10.2174/1872211313666190503112040 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Vitamin D and its impact on maternal-fetal outcomes in pregnancy: A critical review
Agarwal, S., Kovilam, O. P., & Agrawal, D. K. (2016) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2016.1220915 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Regulatory T cells, inflammation and the allergic response—The role of glucocorticoids and Vitamin D
Dimeloe, S., Nanzer, A. M., Ryanna, K., & Hawrylowicz, C. M. (2010) · The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2010.02.029 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Vitamin D: Extraskeletal Health
Holick, M. F. (2012) · Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.rdc.2012.03.013 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationArdawi, M. S., Qari, M. H., Rouzi, A. A., Maimani, A. A., & Raddadi, R. M. (2010) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-010-1249-7 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
- Authors
- Holick, M. F., & Chen, T. C.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Holick, Michael F
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-04
- Volume
- 87
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1080S-1086S
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2163507707
- Cited by
- 2,689
- References
- 104
- Citations by year
- 2026: 55 · 2025: 95 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 177 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 186 · 2019: 197 · 2018: 177 · 2017: 205 · 2016: 181 · 2015: 182 · 2014: 143 · 2013: 149 · 2012: 129
- FWCI
- 84.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Vitamin D Research Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Bone health and osteoporosis research
- Keywords
- vitamin D deficiency, sun exposure, vitamin D fortification, rickets, osteoporosis, osteopenia, fracture, cancer risk, autoimmune disease, hypertension, infectious diseases, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, vitamin D3, vitamin D2, vitamin D intake
- MeSH terms
- Autoimmune Diseases, Bone and Bones, Cardiovascular Diseases, Food, Fortified, Humans, Neoplasms, Nutritional Requirements, Rickets, Sunlight, Vitamin D, Vitamin D Deficiency, Global Health, Bone Density, Bone Density Conservation Agents
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