Federated Learning For IoT: Applications, Trends, Taxonomy, Challenges, Current Solutions, and Future Directions
Open accessAbstract
The rapid advancement of Internet of Things (IoT) technology has transformed the digital landscape, enabling unprecedented connectivity between devices, people, and services. Traditionally, IoT-generated data was processed through centralized, cloud-based machine learning (ML) systems, raising significant privacy, security, and network bandwidth concerns. Federated Learning (FL) presents a viable alternative by transmitting only model parameters while preserving local data privacy. Despite the growing body of research, there remains a gap in comprehensive studies on FL-enabled IoT systems. This review provides an in-depth examination of the integration of FL with IoT, highlighting how FL enhances the efficiency, robustness, and adaptability of IoT systems. The paper introduces the foundational principles of FL, followed by an exploration of its key benefits in decentralized IoT applications. It presents a comparative analysis of FL-IoT architectures using quantitative metrics and proposes a taxonomy that clarifies the complexities and variations in FL-enabled IoT systems. The challenges of deploying FL in IoT environments are discussed, along with current trends and solutions aimed at overcoming these hurdles. Furthermore, the review explores the integration of FL with emerging technologies, including foundational models (FMs), green and sustainable 6th-generation (6G) IoT networks, and deep reinforcement learning (DRL), emphasizing their role in enhancing FL’s efficiency and resilience. It also covers FL frameworks and benchmarks, providing a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners in the field The article concludes by identifying promising research directions that are expected to drive future advancements in this dynamic and expanding field.
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The need for high-performance hardware limits the deployment of federated learning in smaller healthcare facilities and remote areas, restricting access to advanced healthcare technologies in resource-constrained systems.
“The need for high-performance hardware limits the deployment of FL in smaller healthcare facilities and remote areas, restricting access to advanced healthcare technologies in resource-constrained systems [115].”
From Federated Learning in Smart Healthcare: A Comprehensive Review on Privacy, Security, and Predictive Analytics with IoT Integration (2024) · cites this paper as [115]
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Federated Learning of Gboard Language Models with Differential Privacy
Xu, Z., Zhang, Y., Andrew, G., Choquette-Choo, C. A., Kairouz, P., McMahan, H. B., Rosenstock, J., & Zhang, Y. (2023) · Proceedings of the conference - Association for Computational Linguistics. Meeting · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.acl-industry.60 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
ELFISH: Resource-Aware Federated Learning on Heterogeneous Edge Devices.Preprint
Xu, Z., Zhao, Y., Xiong, J., Yang, J., & Chen, X. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · Cited by 56 · see citing works
A survey study on trust-based security in Internet of Things: Challenges and issues
Shirvani, M. H., & Masdari, M. (2022) · Internet of Things · doi:10.1016/j.iot.2022.100640 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
How to Understand Masked AutoencodersPreprint
Cao, S.-H., Xu, P., & Clifton, D. (2022) · arXiv.org · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2202.03670 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
A Dispersed Federated Learning Framework for 6G-Enabled Autonomous Driving Cars
Khan, L. U., Tun, Y. K., Alsenwi, M., Imran, M. A., Han, Z., & Hong, C. S. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnse.2022.3188571 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Elastic Aggregation for Federated Optimization
Chen, D., Hu, J., Tan, V. J., Wei, X., & Wu, E. (2023) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr52729.2023.01173 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
4 of the 252 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Abbas, S. R., Abbas, Z., Zahir, A., & Lee, S. W. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12242587 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Jamshidi, S., Nikanjam, A., Nafi, K. W., Khomh, F., & Rasta, R. (2025) · Internet of Things · doi:10.1016/j.iot.2025.101531 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Energy, Scalability, Data, and Security in Massive IoT: Current Landscape and Future Directions
Cheikh, I., Roy, S., Sabir, E., & Aouami, R. (2026) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2026.3655796 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Adam, M., Albaseer, A. M., Baroudi, U. A., & Abdallah, M. M. (2025) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2025.3554537 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Paolini, D., Dini, P., Elhanashi, A., & Saponara, S. (2026) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics15020476 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Das, B. R., Hasan, S. R., Sabuj, S. R., Hossain, M. A., & Ray, S. K. (2025) · International Journal of Intelligent Networks · doi:10.1016/j.ijin.2025.06.001 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Yang, H., Liu, H., Yuan, X., Wu, K. M., Ni, W., Zhang, J. A., & Liu, R. P. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15126587 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Safaei, Y., Arefijamal, P., Siamaki, M., & Safaei, B. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3583899 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Socio-Organisational Challenges and Impacts of IoT: A Review in Healthcare and Banking
Kalsoom, T., Ramzan, N., Ahmed, S., Anjum, N., Safdar, G. A., & Rehman, M. U. (2025) · Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks · doi:10.3390/jsan14030046 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A Federated Learning Architecture for Bird Species Classification in Wetlands
Mulero-Pérez, D., Rodriguez-Juan, J., Ramírez-Gordillo, T., Benavent-Lledó, M., Ruiz-Ponce, P., Ortiz-Pérez, D., Hernandez-Lopez, H., Iarovikov, A., García‐Rodríguez, J., Sebastián‐González, E., et al. (2025) · Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks · doi:10.3390/jsan14040071 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Valdez, W., Parra-Ullauri, J. M., Simeonidou, D. E., & Kertész, A. (2026) · Journal of Network and Computer Applications · doi:10.1016/j.jnca.2026.104510 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Suvathika, K., Gomathi, N., Hussain, S. S., & Reddy, K. (2025) · doi:10.1109/iccds64403.2025.11209672 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Federated learning for sustainable IoT: Decentralized intelligence and energy-efficient applications
Lameesa, A., Alam, M. S. B., Ahmed, S. F., Liu, G., Islam, M. A., & Gandomi, A. H. (2026) · Energy Reports · doi:10.1016/j.egyr.2026.109145 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
N., R. R., Ahmad, R. B., Balaji, P., & Rahayu, S. B. (2026) · Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing · doi:10.1155/acis/4797749 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Nakkeeran, M., Narayanan, V. A., Sivakumar, P. B., & Balamurugan, S. (2025) · Results in Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2025.108518 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hybrid Transformer and XGBoost Model for Federated IoT Intrusion Detection
Muthuswamy, H. N., Suthagar, M. S., & Natarajan, V. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on AI in Cybersecurity (ICAIC) · doi:10.1109/icaic67076.2026.11395795 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ma, W., Xia, T., Si, W., Cheng, X., Xu, Y., & Xi, L. (2026) · Advanced Engineering Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.aei.2026.105115 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Federated Gnn-Based Solution for Privacy-Aware Internet of Things (Iot) Intrusion DetectionPreprint
Boukdir, A. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5384676
Federated Broad Learning for Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle Clusters in Water Monitoring
Lin, Y., Yuan, X., Du, H., Ding, H., Deng, Q., & Leung, V. C. M. (2025) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2025.3603913
Enhancing Federated Learning in Massive IoT via Contention Resolution Diversity Slotted ALOHA
Dagostim, D., Farhat, J., & Souza, R. D. (2025) · Workshop on Communication Networks and Power Systems (WCNPS) · doi:10.1109/wcnps69127.2025.11295873
Vijayakumar, K., Ezhilvendan, M., Rekha, V., & Joshi, A. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6066932
Guo, S., Zhu, J., Ye, J., Zhang, A., & Min, G. (2025) · International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP) · doi:10.1109/wcsp68525.2025.1010287
Federated learning with adaptively sparsified and recoverable perturbation for internet of things
Birhanu, H., & Takele, A. K. (2026) · Discover Internet of Things · doi:10.1007/s43926-026-00294-x
Federated Learning and its Uses in Modern Medical Industry: Concepts and Challenges
Sivashankar, G., Sawhney, S., Goel, I., Ashokkumar, P., Vandhana, S., & K.Babu (2025) · International Conference on Electronics, Communication and Aerospace Technology (ICECA) · doi:10.1109/iceca66444.2025.11383312
Enriching Security in Federated Learning and IoT - A Systematic Review
Ms. Divya, C., & Simpson, S. V. (2026) · International Conference on Intelligent and Innovative Technologies in Computing, Electrical and Electronics (IITCEE) · doi:10.1109/iitcee67948.2026.11394432
An aggregation algorithm to handle data temporal dependence in Federated Learning
de Outeiro, S. A., Filho, L. L., & Miceli, C. (2025) · IEEE Annual Congress on Artificial Intelligence of Things (AIoT) · doi:10.1109/aiot66900.2025.00114
FedSSV: Client Contribution for Secure Federated Learning Aggregation Using Scaled Shapley Values
Sani, S. D., Olapojoye, R., Salman, T., Ji, T., & Teixeira, M. A. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnse.2026.3674950
Gao, X. (2025) · International Conference on Energy Technology and Electrical Power (ETEP) · doi:10.1109/etep67941.2025.11440574
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Li, Z., & Guan, S. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics · doi:10.1109/tce.2026.3681623
Federated Attention‑Capsule CNN with Bio‑Optimization for Coronary Artery Disease Screening
Angelin Jeba, P., Jasmine David, D., Selvarathi, M., Nesh, K. B., Varkey, A. B., & Jebaseeli, T. J. (2026) · Journal of Trends in Computer Science and Smart Technology · doi:10.36548/jtcsst.2026.2.001
Ahmed, A. H., & Mohsen, O. (2026) · Advanced Engineering Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.aei.2026.104863
Federated Learning Approach for Bitcoin Price Prediction
Singh, A., Kaur, G., & Vashisth, A. (2026) · International Conference on Signal, Systems, and Computing for Next-Gen Automation (ICSSCNA) · doi:10.1109/icsscna68616.2026.11547026
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BioMutFed+: Mutation-Driven Federated Learning for IIoT
Tallat, R., Wang, X., Hawbani, A., Xu, X., Miao, F., Zhao, L., & Wang, J. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing · doi:10.1109/tmc.2026.3707971
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A Fog-Enabled Architecture for Securing Hierarchical Federated Learning from Data Poisoning
Adam, M., & Baroudi, U. A. (2025) · IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps) · doi:10.1109/gcwkshps68340.2025.11591145
Alkhorasani, H., Zolait, A. H., & Alawag, A. M. (2026) · International Conference on Frontiers of Engineering and Emerging Technologies (FET) · doi:10.1109/fet68771.2026.11601477
Decentralized Machine Learning in Healthcare: Federated Learning for IoMT and Beyond
MUGIGAYI, F., Karacan, H., Alli, A. A., Ali, A. B., & Mwondi, L. A. (2026) · International Symposium on AI-Driven Engineering Systems (ISADES) · doi:10.1109/isades69945.2026.11608204
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A Review of Resource Allocation Strategies for Federated Learning in Wireless Networks
Fath, N., Nugraha, I. G. D., & Asvial, M. (2026) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2026.3730823
Wang, X., Bai, S., Zhang, Y., & Gursoy, M. C. (2026) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s26185783
FLChain: Federated Learning and Blockchain for CNC Machine Health
Srivastava, T., Surabhi, R., Garlapati, S. P., Pulipati, N., Varghese, A., & Kumar, S. A. (2026) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2026.3734117
A Comprehensive Review of Federated Learning for Green 6G-IIoT Ecosystems
Tiwari, S., Prakash, S., Tiwari, V. K., & Kumar, D. (2026) · International Conference on Green Technologies and Sustainable Solutions (GTSS) · doi:10.1109/gtss68743.2026.11679691
A novel federated learning approach for enhancing QoS and scalability in IoT networks
Et-Tousy, J., & Zyane, A. (2026) · Cluster Computing · doi:10.1007/s10586-026-06633-5
- Authors
- Adam, M., & Baroudi, U.
- Affiliations
- King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (SA)
- Venue
- IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society
- Published
- 2024
- Volume
- 5
- Pages
- 7842-7877
- ISSN
- 2644-125X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4404688019
- Cited by
- 46
- References
- 252
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 1
- FWCI
- 6.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Interdisciplinary Research Center for Intelligent Secure Systems (IRC-ISS), KFUPM University, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia (INSS2407)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › IoT and Edge/Fog Computing
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Internet of Things and AI
- Keywords
- federated learning, Internet of Things, privacy-preserving machine learning, decentralized learning, 6G, green Internet of Things, deep reinforcement learning, large language models, data privacy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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