Self as Cultural Product: An Examination of East Asian and North American Selves

Heine, Steven J.

doi:10.1111/1467-6494.696168

Cited by 531Cultural Differences and ValuesPersonality Traits and PsychologyIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

Self as Cultural Product: An Examination of East Asian and North American Selves

Heine, Steven J.·2001·Journal of Personality

DOI 10.1111/1467-6494.696168

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

In the past decade a wealth of research has been conducted on the cultural foundation of the self‐concept, particularly with respect to East Asian and North American selves. The present paper discusses how the self differs across these two cultural contexts, particularly with respect to an emphasis on consistency versus flexibility, an intraindividual vs. an extraindividual focus, the malleability of the self versus world, the relation of self to others, and self‐enhancing versus self‐critical motivations. These differences reveal the manifold ways that culture shapes the self.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/1467-6494.696168

Cites

84 of 84 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

In Asian cultures, where collective identity and family obligations are central to individual experiences, Self-as-Context may have different effects, potentially leading to feelings of isolation or emotional disconnect.
“For instance, in Asian cultures, where collective identity and family obligations are central to individual experiences, Self-as-Context may have different effects, potentially leading to feelings of isolation or emotional disconnect.62”
From Differential associations of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy processes with psychological distress across racial groups. (2026) · cites this paper as [62]

Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224 · Cited by 21,995 · see citing works
A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Morvan, C., & O’Connor, A. (2017) · Macat Library eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781912282432 · Cited by 18,284 · see citing works
The psychology of interpersonal relations
Heider, F. (1958) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2089062 · Cited by 17,189 · see citing works
Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values.
Sorge, A. M., & Hofstede, G. (1983) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2393017 · Cited by 15,186 · see citing works
A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.2.256 · Cited by 9,745 · see citing works
The case for motivated reasoning.
Kunda, Z. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480 · Cited by 9,022 · see citing works
Illusion and well‐being: A social psychological perspective on mental health
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193 · Cited by 7,814 · see citing works
Unrealistic optimism about future life events
Weinstein, N. D. (1980) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.5.806 · Cited by 4,999 · see citing works
Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority
Asch, S. E. (1956) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0093718 · Cited by 4,267 · see citing works
Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition.
Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.2.291 · Cited by 4,263 · see citing works
Client-Centered Therapy
Meany, J. O., Rogers, C. R., Dorfman, E., Gordon, T., & Hobbes, N. (1951) · The American Catholic Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/3707825 · Cited by 4,192 · see citing works
The illusion of control.
Langer, E. J. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.2.311 · Cited by 3,909 · see citing works
Trust and commitment in the United States and Japan
Yamagishi, T., & Yamagishi, M. (1994) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf02249397 · Cited by 2,392 · see citing works
Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.4.766 · Cited by 2,247 · cited 2× · see citing works
“These cultural differences are clear across a wide array of paradigms, including those conducted with hidden or behavioral measures, and cannot be interpreted as solely due to differences in self-presentation (see Heine et al., 1999 for a review).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates and cultural boundaries
Campbell, J. D., Trapnell, P. D., Heine, S. J., Katz, I. M., Lavallee, L. F., & Lehman, D. R. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.1.141 · Cited by 2,088 · see citing works
Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes
Wood, J. V. (1989) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.231 · Cited by 1,957 · see citing works
Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction.
Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.9.741 · Cited by 1,758 · see citing works
Individual and collective processes in the construction of the self: Self-enhancement in the United States and self-criticism in Japan.
Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H., & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1245 · Cited by 1,581 · see citing works
Relation of implicit theories to the construction of personal histories.
Ross, M. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.2.341 · Cited by 1,570 · see citing works
Culture and cause: American and Chinese attributions for social and physical events.
Morris, M. W., & Peng, K. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.949 · Cited by 1,537 · see citing works
Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation.
Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.76.3.349 · Cited by 1,515 · see citing works
Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch's (1952b, 1956) line judgment task.
Bond, R., & Smith, P. B. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.111 · Cited by 1,486 · see citing works
The psychological measurement of cultural syndromes.
Triandis, H. C. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.4.407 · Cited by 1,457 · see citing works
Attractive Faces Are Only Average
Langlois, J. H., & Roggman, L. A. (1990) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00079.x · Cited by 1,319 · see citing works
The Learning Gap: Why Our Schools are Failing and What We Can Learn from Japanese and Chinese Education.
White, M. I., Stevenson, H. W., & Stigler, J. W. (1993) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2074400 · Cited by 1,277 · see citing works
Attribution of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory
Zuckerman, M. (1979) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1979.tb00202.x · Cited by 1,136 · see citing works
Interpersonal and intrapsychic adaptiveness of trait self enhancement: a mixed blessing?
Paulhus, D. L. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1197 · Cited by 1,114 · see citing works
Culture and the development of everyday social explanation.
Miller, J. G. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.5.961 · Cited by 1,105 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1990) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,084 · see citing works
Cultural variations in emotions: A review.
Mesquita, B., & Frijda, N. H. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.179 · Cited by 1,084 · see citing works
Cultural psychology – what is it?
Shweder, R. A. (1990) · Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139173728.002 · Cited by 1,080 · see citing works
What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales?: The reference-group effect.
Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Peng, K., & Greenholtz, J. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.903 · Cited by 1,080 · see citing works
Self-citation
Causal attribution across cultures: Variation and universality.
Choi, I., Nisbett, R. E., & Ara Norenzayan, A. (1999) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.1.47 · Cited by 1,055 · see citing works
Culture, Emotion, and Well-being: Good Feelings in Japan and the United States
Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Kurokawa, M. (2000) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999300379003 · Cited by 1,020 · see citing works
American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword.
Manza, J., & Lipset, S. M. (1996) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2077274 · Cited by 1,009 · see citing works
Self‐Presentational Motivations and Personality Differences in Self‐Esteem
Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Hutton, D. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb02384.x · Cited by 874 · see citing works
Standing out and standing in: The psychology of control in America and Japan.
Weisz, J. R., Rothbaum, F. M., & Blackburn, T. C. (1984) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.39.9.955 · Cited by 820 · see citing works
Stability and malleability of the self-concept.
Markus, H. R., & Kunda, Z. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.51.4.858 · Cited by 758 · see citing works
Drug choice as a self-handicapping strategy in response to noncontingent success.
Berglas, S., & JONES, E. E. (1978) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.36.4.405 · Cited by 748 · see citing works
Ambiguity and Self-Evaluation: The Role of Idiosyncratic Trait Definitions in Self-Serving Assessments of Ability
Dunning, D. A., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.020 · Cited by 688 · see citing works
The Cultural Psychology of Personality
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1998) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022198291004 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
Culture, identity consistency, and subjective well-being.
Suh, E. M. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1378 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
Self-image resilience and dissonance: The role of affirmational resources.
Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Lynch, M. F. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.64.6.885 · Cited by 602 · see citing works
The Cultural Psychology of Development: One Mind, Many Mentalities
Shweder, R. A., Goodnow, J. J., Hatano, G., Levine, R. A., Markus, H. R., & Miller, P. J. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0113 · Cited by 529 · see citing works
Cultural variation in unrealistic optimism: Does the West feel more vulnerable than the East?
Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.4.595 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Self-citation
Japan's High Schools
Rohlen, T. P. (1983) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/9780520341302 · Cited by 496 · see citing works
Implicit theories and conceptions of morality.
Chiu, C., Dweck, C. S., Tong, J., & Fu, J. H. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.5.923 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
“Who Am I?” The Cultural Psychology of the Conceptual Self
Kanagawa, C., Cross, S. E., & Markus, H. R. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201271008 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Preschool in Three Cultures
Tobin, J. J., Wu, D. Y. H., & Davidson, D. H. (2017) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.12987/9780300162387 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Validity problems comparing values across cultures and possible solutions.
Peng, K., Nisbett, R. E., & Wong, N. Y. C. (1997) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.2.4.329 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
The cultural construction of self-enhancement: An examination of group-serving biases.
Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.72.6.1268 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Self-citation
Culture, Dissonance, and Self-Affirmation
Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167297234005 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Self-citation
Situational Salience and Cultural Differences in the Correspondence Bias and Actor-Observer Bias
Choi, I., & Nisbett, R. E. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298249003 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
Emotion and autonomic nervous system activity in the Minangkabau of West Sumatra.
Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., Heider, K., & Friesen, W. V. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.62.6.972 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Spontaneous self-descriptions and ethnic identities in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
Rhee, E., Uleman, J. S., Lee, H. K., & Roman, R. J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.69.1.142 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Allure of negative feedback: Self-verification strivings among depressed persons.
Swann, W. B., Wenzlaff, R. M., Krull, D. S., & Pelham, B. W. (1992) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.101.2.293 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Similarity and uniqueness: The effects of attribute type, relevance, and individual differences in self-esteem and depression.
Campbell, J. D. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.50.2.281 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
On the Nature of Anthropological Understanding
Geertz, C. (1975) · American Scientist · Cited by 337 · see citing works
College Students' Spontaneous Self-Concept
Bond, M. H., & Cheung, T.-S. (1983) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022002183014002002 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Beyond Self-Presentation: Evidence for Self-Criticism among Japanese
Heine, S. J., Takata, T., & Lehman, D. R. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200261007 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Self-citation
Culture and Personality: Toward an Integrated Cultural Trait Psychology
Church, A. T. (2000) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00112 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Antecedents of and Reactions to Emotions in the United States and Japan
Matsumoto, D., Kudoh, T., Scherer, K. R., & Wallbott, H. G. (1988) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022188193001 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man
Geertz, C. (1966) · Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists · doi:10.1080/00963402.1966.11454918 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Exit from the group as an individualistic solution to the free rider problem in the United States and Japan
Yamagishi, T. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(88)90051-0 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Some effects of task relevance and friendship on helping: You don't always help the one you like
Tesser, A., & Smith, J. E. (1980) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(80)90060-8 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Culture as process: Empirical methods for cultural psychology.
Greenfield, P. M. (1997) · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Do people believe behaviours are consistent with attitudes? Towards a cultural psychology of attribution processes
Kashima, Y., Siegal, M., Tanaka, K., & Kashima, E. S. (1992) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1992.tb00959.x · Cited by 179 · see citing works
The Cross-Cultural Perspective in the Study of Personality
Church, A. T., & Lonner, W. J. (1998) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022198291003 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
The Self-Serving Bias in Attributions as a Coping Strategy
Kashima, Y., & Triandis, H. C. (1986) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022002186017001006 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Culture and Positive Illusions in Close Relationships: How My Relationships Are Better than Yours
Endo, Y., Heine, S. J., & Lehman, D. R. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672002612011 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Self-citation
Do Chinese Self-Enhance or Self-Efface? It's a Matter of Domain
Yik, M., Bond, M. H., & Paulhus, D. L. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298244006 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
The Fundamental Fundamental Attribution Error: Correspondence Bias in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Krull, D. S., Loy, M. H.-M., Lin, J. S., Wang, C.-F., Chen, S., & Zhao, X. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299258003 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Educating hearts and minds
DeRoche, E. F. (1997) · Cited by 124 · see citing works
The perceiver as perceived: Everyday intuitions about the correspondence bias.
Leaf Van Boven, A., Kamada, A., & Gilovich, T. D. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1188 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Reactions to incongruent self-experiences.
Crary, W. G. (1966) · Journal of Consulting Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0023347 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Paternity uncertainty and the complex repertoire of human mating strategies.
Buss, D. M. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.161 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Personal adjustment : an approach through the study of healthy personality.
Jourard, S. M. (1963) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Conformity and anticonformity in Japan.
Frager, R. (1970) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029434 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Culture and selfhood in Japan and the U.S.
Cousins, S. D. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Independence from Whom? Interdependence with Whom? Cultural Perspectives on Ingroups Versus Outgroups
Iyengar, S. S., Lepper, M. R., & Ross, L. D. (1999) · doi:10.7916/d8qv3t6x · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Kejime: Defining a shifting self in multiple organizational modes.
Bachnik, J. M. (1992) · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Group composition and conforming behavior in Japanese students
WILLIAMS, T. P., & Sogon, S. (1984) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.4992/psycholres1954.26.231 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
LOCUS OF CONTROL IN STUDENTS FROM JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES: DIMENSIONS AND LEVELS OF RESPONSE
Bond, M. H., & Tornatzky, L. G. (1973) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.1973.209 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Motivation and Personality
(1997) · Naming the Mind: How Psychology Found its Language · doi:10.4135/9781446221815.n7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Motivational and emotional aspects of the self
Leary, M. R. (2007) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085658 · Cited by 838 · see citing works
“When the group performs poorly, however, each member feels less responsible for the outcome than does the average member (Mullen & Riordan 1988, Schlenker & Miller 1977).”
Background
Psychological universals: what are they and how can we know?
Norenzayan, A., & Heine, S. J. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.763 · Cited by 820 · see citing works
Self-citation
What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales?: The reference-group effect.
Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Peng, K., & Greenholtz, J. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.903 · Cited by 1,080 · see citing works
“…efforts, such as backtranslation (Brislin, 1970), the use of different methodologies on the basis of the nature of the sample (Greenfield, 1997), the use of hidden behavioral measures (Heine et al., 2000, 2001), and standardization of the data (Bond, 1988), can correct many of these confounds.”
MethodSelf-citation
Divergent consequences of success and failure in japan and north america: an investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves.
Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., Lehman, D., Takata, T., Ide, E., Leung, C.-W., & Matsumoto, H. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.599 · Cited by 741 · see citing works
Self-citation
Within- and between-culture variation: Individual differences and the cultural logics of honor, face, and dignity cultures.
Leung, A. K. ‐., & Cohen, D. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022151 · Cited by 736 · see citing works
“Ho (1976, p. 883; see also Heine, 2001) defined face as “the respectability and/or deference which a person can claim . . . by virtue of [his or her] relative position” in a hierarchy and the proper fulfillment of his or her role.”
The Psychological Foundations of Culture
Harton, H. C., & Bourgeois, M. J. (2003) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410608994 · Cited by 630 · see citing works
Pancultural self-enhancement.
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., & Toguchi, Y. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.60 · Cited by 885 · see citing works
Neural basis of cultural influence on self-representation
Zhu, Y., Zhang, L., Fan, J., & Han, S. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.047 · Cited by 701 · see citing works
“While social psychological studies suggest that cultures create habitual ways of processing information related to the self and one’s important others (Heine, 2001;Markus and Kitayama, 1991), our fMRI results indicate that these habitual cognitive processes are accompanied by detectible parallel neural processes.”
Background
The evolution of Hofstede's doctrine
Minkov, M., & Hofstede, G. H. (2011) · Cross Cultural Management An International Journal · doi:10.1108/13527601111104269 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
Hofstede’s Fifth Dimension
Minkov, M., & Hofstede, G. H. (2010) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022110388567 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
“Hofstede (2001) preferred to interpret it as time orientation, whereas Minkov (2007, 2008) hypothesized a link with the theory of self-enhancement and self-stability in Heine (2001, 2003) and Heine and Hamamura (2007).”
Background
Perseverance Counts but Consistency Does Not! Validating the Short Grit Scale in a Collectivist Setting
Datu, J. A. D., Valdez, J. P. M., & King, R. B. (2015) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-015-9374-2 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
“Indeed, studies have shown that people in collectivist societies have a lower need for consistency and exhibit higher levels of flexibility compared to their counterparts in individualist societies (e.g., Heine 2001; Suh 2002).”
Background
The Underdog Effect: The Marketing of Disadvantage and Determination through Brand Biography
Paharia, N., Keinan, A., Avery, J., & Schor, J. B. (2010) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/656219 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
The Cultural Grounding of Personal Relationship: Enemyship in North American and West African Worlds.
Adams, G. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.948 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Personality: The Universal and the Culturally Specific
Heine, S. J., & Buchtel, E. E. (2009) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163655 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
“This interdependent view of self is more common in non-Western cultures and has been linked to a wide array of distinct phenomena (for reviews, see Heine 2001, Markus & Kitayama 1991, Triandis 1989).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Culture and Social Comparison Seeking: The Role of Self-Motives
White, K., & Lehman, D. R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271326 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
“…collective than personal goals (Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1989), more likely to have an extraindividual (i.e., externally oriented) than intraindividual (i.e., internally oriented) focus (Heine, 2001), and more concerned with and bounded by relationships, roles, and social duties (Heine, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluential
Effects of Parent-Child Relationships and Classroom Goal Structures on Motivation, Help-Seeking Avoidance, and Cheating
Bong, M. (2008) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.3200/jexe.76.2.191-217 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
“Parent–child relationships in Korean contexts may include multiple aspects, and each likely plays a slightly different role in student motivation (Park, Kim, & Chung, 2004) Individuals in East Asian cultures, including the current sample of Korean adolescents, are generally known to hold what is called interdependent…”
BackgroundInfluential
Culture, Power, and Experience: Toward a Person-Centered Cultural Psychology
Gjerde, P. F. (2004) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000077987 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
“Cultural psychology, as conceived by many [e.g., Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Nisbett, 2003; Nisbett et al., 2001], is typically based on the supposition of unified groups that can be studied in their organic totality.”
Background
Understanding Health Disparities: The Role of Race and Socioeconomic Status in Children’s Health
Chen, E., Martin, A. D., & Matthews, K. A. (2006) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2004.048124 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Cultural differences in intimacy: The influence of gender-role ideology and individualism—Collectivism
Marshall, T. C. (2008) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407507086810 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“Specifically, collectivism may encourage greater responsiveness to in-group members – such as family or romantic partners – as a means of fostering harmony and mutual obligation (Heine, 2001; Lebra, 1976; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).”
Background
Self–focused attention and emotional reactivity: The role of culture
Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E., & Tsai, J. L. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018534 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Dignity, face, and honor cultures: A study of negotiation strategy and outcomes in three cultures
Aslani, S., Ramirez‐Marin, J. Y., Brett, J. M., Yao, J., Semnani‐Azad, Z., Zhang, Z., Tinsley, C. H., Weingart, L. R., & Adair, W. L. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2095 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Perfectionism and motivation of adolescents in academic contexts.
Bong, M., Hwang, A., Noh, A., & Kim, S. (2014) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035836 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“The desire to please significant others in the social network that one identifies with, is a strong source of motivation for individuals in collectivistic cultures with interdependent self-construal (Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Oishi & Diener, 2001).”
Background
The Role of Culture in Affective Empathy: Cultural and Bicultural Differences
Cassels, T. G., Chan, S. F., & Chung, W. (2010) · Journal of Cognition and Culture · doi:10.1163/156853710x531203 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
“According to previous work exploring cultural differences in self-concepts and self-construals, North Americans hold a more consistent sense of self than East Asians, such that the core representations of their identity remains largely uninfluenced by others (Heine, 2001).”
Toward a Psychological Science for a Cultural Species
Heine, S. J., & Ara Norenzayan, A. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00015.x · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Self-citation
The crisis of minimal self-awareness in schizophrenia: A meta-analytic review
Hur, J., Kwon, J. S., Lee, T. Y., & Park, S. (2013) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2013.08.042 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“Another limitation is the glaring absence of the role of culture as a foundation for and/or contributor to selfawareness (Heine, 2001).”
Background
Hunter-Gatherers Maintain Assortativity in Cooperation despite High Levels of Residential Change and Mixing
Smith, K. M., Larroucau, T., Mabulla, I. A., & Apicella, C. L. (2018) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.07.064 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Information, Perspective, and Judgments About the Self in Face and Dignity Cultures
Kim, Y.-H., & Cohen, D. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210362398 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Contextualizing person perception: Distributed social cognition.
Smith, E. R., & Collins, E. C. (2009) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0015072 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“Reputation may even prove to be a key locus of cultural differences; where members of individualist cultures place the most emphasis on their own self-concept, members of collectivist cultures might be expected to value reputation (the view of the individual held by those linked to him or her in social networks) above…”
Background
Culture, cross-role consistency, and adjustment: Testing trait and cultural psychology perspectives.
Church, A. T., Anderson-Harumi, C. A., del Prado, A. M., Curtis, G. J., Tanaka‐Matsumi, J., Medina, J. L. V., Mastor, K. A., White, F. A., Miramontes, L. A., & Katigbak, M. S. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.3.739 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“In contrast, for people with interdependent self-construals, roles and relationships are expected to influence behavior more than traits, reducing consistency (Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluential
The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Psychology
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Interjudge Agreement, Self-Enhancement, and Liking: Cross-Cultural Divergences
Heine, S. J., & Renshaw, K. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202288002 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“However, to the extent that interdependent selves are sustained by roles and relationships (Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991), investigating the individual self in isolation or in the context of interactions with strangers will only reveal a misleading fraction of the self (Lebra, 1976).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Prediction and cross-situational consistency of daily behavior across cultures: Testing trait and cultural psychology perspectives
Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Reyes, J. A. S., Salanga, M. G. C., Miramontes, L. A., & Adams, N. B. (2008) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.03.007 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“‘‘. . .the functional value of consistency is less clear for East Asian selves (Heine, 2001, p. 886).”
Background
Where Is the Evidence for Pancultural Self-Enhancement? A Reply to Sedikides, Gaertner, and Toguchi (2003).
Heine, S. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.531 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Self-citation
Weighing outcome vs. intent across societies: How cultural models of mind shape moral reasoning
McNamara, R. A., Willard, A. K., Ara Norenzayan, A., & Henrich, J. (2018) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.09.008 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“For much of human history, the desires and goals of the community or the family have outweighed individual concerns (Brison, 2001; Gelfand et al., 2011; Heine, 2001).”
Downsides of an<i>Overly</i>Context‐Sensitive Self: Implications From the Culture and Subjective Well‐Being Research
Suh, E. M. (2007) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00477.x · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“Subjective opinions and feelings about the self are not enough; they need to be more officially ‘‘validated’’ by consensually shared social standards (cf. Heine, 2001).”
Background
Conformity of Korean adolescents in their perceptions of social relationships and academic motivation
Jiang, Y., Bong, M., & Kim, S. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.04.012 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“East Asian adolescents in collectivistic cultures, presumably with an interdependent self (Heine, 2001), are sensitive to their parents' expectations and demonstrate a strong desire to satisfy their wishes.”
Background
Consistent Belief in a Good True Self in Misanthropes and Three Interdependent Cultures
Freitas, J. D., Sarkissian, H., Newman, G. E., Grossmann, I., Brigard, F. D., Luco, A. C., & Knobe, J. (2017) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12505 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
In their own words: Reasons underlying the achievement striving of students in schools.
Lee, M., & Bong, M. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000048 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-Concept Consistency and Culture: The Differential Impact of Two Forms of Consistency
English, T., & Chen, S. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211400621 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“In Eastern cultures, by contrast, consistency is thought to be generally less valued (Heine, 2001; Heine & Lehman, 1997, 1999; Markus & Kitayama, 1994; Suh, 2002).”
Background
Within-individual variability in self-concepts and personality states: Applying density distribution and situation-behavior approaches across cultures
Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Ching, C. M., Zhang, H., Shen, J., Mazuera‐Arias, R., Rincon, B. C., Morio, H., Tanaka‐Matsumi, J., Takaoka, S., et al. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.09.002 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“In contrast, for people with interdependent self-construals, roles and relationships are expected to impact behavior more than traits, increasing within-individual variability (Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1998).”
Background
Self-concept consistency and short-term stability in eight cultures
Church, A. T., Alvarez, J. M., Katigbak, M. S., Mastor, K. A., Cabrera, H. F., Tanaka‐Matsumi, J., Vargas‐Flores, J. D. J., Ibáñez‐Reyes, J., Zhang, H.-S., Shen, J., et al. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.06.003 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“…time, cultural psychologists have proposed that self-concept consistency is less important in collectivist or East Asian cultures, where the ability to adapt to situational or role requirements is highly valued (Choi & Choi, 2002; Heine, 2001; Spencer-Rodgers, Williams, & Peng, 2010; Suh, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluential
Superstitious Behavior Among American and Japanese Professional Baseball Players
Burger, J. M., & Lynn, A. L. (2005) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2701_7 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“In particular, the United States and Japan often have been used as prototypic examples of an individualistic and a collectivist culture (Heine, 2001; Kitayama & Markus, 1994).”
Background
Culture shapes empathic responses to physical and social pain.
Atkins, D., Üskül, A. K., & Cooper, N. R. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000162 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“In line with past research showing that Easterners tend to be more concerned with the feelings of others with whom they share a relational link (e.g., Cousins, 1989; Heine, 2001; Kanagawa, Cross, & Markus, 2001), Ma-Kellams and Blascovich found that East Asians inferred the emotions of close others more accurately tha…”
BackgroundResult
Charity Begins at Home: Cultural Differences in Social Discounting and Generosity
Strombach, T., Jin, J. K., Weber, B., Kenning, P. H., Shen, Q., Ma, Q., & Tobias Kalenscher, A. (2013) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.1802 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“Prior research strongly indicates that self-concepts differ across cultures (Bochner, 1994; Cross, Hardin, & Gercek-Swing, 2011; Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Zhu & Han, 2008).”
BackgroundMethod
Terror management in Japan
Heine, S. J., Harihara, M., & Niiya, Y. (2002) · Asian Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/1467-839x.00103 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“…where identity is importantly grounded in one’s roles and memberships with significant ingroups, as is arguably the case in Japan (Cousins, 1989; Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991), a meaningful existence may be attained better through other means, for example, by maintaining ‘face’ (Heine…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The manifestation of traits in everyday behavior and affect: A five-culture study
Ching, C. M., Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Reyes, J. A. S., Tanaka‐Matsumi, J., Takaoka, S., Zhang, H., Shen, J., Mazuera‐Arias, R., Rincon, B. C., et al. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.10.002 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Why do Asian Americans academically outperform Whites? – The cultural explanation revisited
Liu, A., & Xie, Y. (2016) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.03.004 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“To begin with, numerous studies in cultural psychology have shown that the East Asian concept of self views individuals as more malleable than does the Western Caucasian concept of self (cf. Chiu et al., 1997; Heine, 2001; Neisser et al.,1996).”
From ugly duckling to swan?
Lockhart, K. L., Nakashima, N., Inagaki, K., & Keil, F. C. (2007) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.001 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Consistent with this view, effort is highly valued in Japan and traits such as academic prowess are often viewed as the result of effort more than innate ability ( Heine, 2001; Sato, Namiki, Ando, & Hatano, 2004).”
Influential
Prospects for an integrated trait and cultural psychology
Church, A. T. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.700 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“As noted above, some cultural psychologists have suggested that cultural differences in the traitedness of self-concepts and causal inferences can be accounted for by cultural differences in the implicit theories or beliefs held by cultural participants (e.g. Chiu, Hong, & Dweck, 1997; Heine, 2001; Norenzayan, Choi, &…”
BackgroundInfluential
The development of personality across the lifespan
Donnellan, M. B., & Robins, R. W. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.015 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
On Pancultural Self-Enhancement
Gaertner, L., Sedikides, C., & Chang, K. (2008) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022108318431 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Culture and Mental Illness: Social Context and Explanatory Models
Kirmayer, L. J., & Bhugra, D. (2009) · doi:10.1002/9780470743485.ch3 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Investigating Multidimensional Interoceptive Awareness in a Japanese Population: Validation of the Japanese MAIA-J
Shoji, M., Mehling, W. E., Hautzinger, M., & Herbert, B. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01855 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Here, the self is considered as embedded in a social context, and group harmony and cooperation are of relevance (e.g., Heine, 2001).”
Background
Neither Eastern nor Western: Patterns of independence and interdependence in Mediterranean societies.
Üskül, A. K., Kirchner‐Häusler, A., Vignoles, V. L., Rodríguez‐Bailón, R., Castillo, V. A., Cross, S. E., Yalçın, M. G., Harb, C., Husnu, S., Ishii, K., et al. (2023) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000342 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Temperament and brain networks of attention
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0254 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Implicit Theories and Self-Perceptions of Traitedness Across Cultures
Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., del Prado, A. M., Ortiz, F. A., Mastor, K. A., Harumi, Y., Tanaka‐Matsumi, J., Vargas‐Flores, J. D. J., Ibáñez‐Reyes, J., White, F. A., et al. (2006) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022106292078 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“…differ in their endorsement of trait beliefs as a function of the type of trait, the more common stance of cultural psychologists has been to associate individualism with greater traitedness in general, without reference to specific traits (Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1998; Triandis, 1995).”
BackgroundInfluential
Acculturation of Personality
Güngör, D., Bornstein, M. H., Leersnyder, J. D., Cote, L. R., Ceulemans, E., & Mesquita, B. (2012) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022112470749 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“These differences can be explained by greater emphasis on individuality versus uniformity, assertiveness versus self-control, and situational consistency versus appropriateness in the respective cultural contexts (e.g., Heine, 2001).”
Background
Sharing with perfect strangers: The effects of self-disclosure on consumers’ trust, risk perception, and behavioral intention in the sharing economy
Tran, T. T. H., Robinson, K., & Paparoidamis, N. G. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.01.081 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Mirrors in the Head: Cultural Variation in Objective Self-Awareness
Heine, S. J., Takemoto, T., Moskalenko, S., Lasaleta, J., & Henrich, J. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208316921 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“To explore this, researchers typically contrast the nature of the self-concept across cultures; in particular, much research has contrasted self-concepts common in East Asian contexts with those common in North American contexts (Cousins, 1989; Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).”
Self-citation
Cultural influences on terror management: Independent and interdependent self-esteem as anxiety buffers
Du, H., Jonas, E., Klackl, J., Agroskin, D., Hui, E. K. P., & Ma, L. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.06.007 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Personality and emotion
Reisenzein, R., & Weber, H. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.007 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Life Script Events and Autobiographical Memories of Important Life Story Events in Mexico, Greenland, China, and Denmark
Scherman, A. Z., Salgado, S., Shao, Z., & Berntsen, D. (2017) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.11.007 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Interpersonal relationship mindsets and rejection sensitivity across cultures: The role of relational mobility
Lou, N. M., & Li, L. M. W. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.004 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Friendship quality, social preference, proximity prestige, and self-perceived social competence: Interactive influences on children's loneliness
Zhang, F., You, Z., Fan, C., Gao, C., Cohen, R., Hsueh, Y., & Zhou, Z. (2014) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2014.06.001 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Achievement Goal Orientations and Adolescents’ Subjective Well-Being in School: The Mediating Roles of Academic Social Comparison Directions
Tian, L., Tingting, Y., & Huebner, E. S. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00037 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“In a sense, each self is a necessary element for other selves, thus interpersonal relationships reflect the critical building blocks of Chinese life (Heine, 2001).”
Background
The Role of Culture and Self-Construal in the Link Between Expressive Suppression and Depressive Symptoms
Su, J. C., Lee, R. M., & Oishi, S. (2012) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022112443413 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Previous research has found that cultural differences in models of the self play a critical role in emotional reactivity (Chentsova-Dutton & Tsai, 2010; Heine, 2001).”
Background
Individualism–Collectivism, Private Benefits of Control, and Earnings Management: A Cross-Culture Comparison
Zhang, X., Liang, X., & HongYan, S. (2013) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1711-5 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Cultural psychologists argue that the trait-related behavioral consistency is greater in individualist than collectivist cultures because behavior in collectivist cultures is more strongly influenced by contextual factors (Heine 2001; Markus and Kitayama 1998; Triandis 1995).”
Self-Conscious Emotions and Self-Regulation in the Promotion of Condom Use
Hynie, M., MacDonald, T. K., & Marques, S. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206288060 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Moreover, members of collectivist cultures are believed to have a more salient social self-representation (Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1998).”
Background
The relations between life domain satisfaction and subjective well‐being
Leung, A. S. M., Cheung, Y. H., & Liu, X. (2011) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683941111102182 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Understanding Resilience
Seery, M. D., & Quinton, W. J. (2016) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.02.002 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Profiles of adolescents’ motivational beliefs in science learning and science achievement in 26 countries: Results from TIMSS 2011 data
Liou, P. (2016) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2016.11.006 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Cultural Factors That Impact Brand Personification Strategy Effectiveness
Aguirre‐Rodriguez, A. (2013) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20676 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Do collectivists know themselves better than individualists? Cross-cultural studies of the holier than thou phenomenon.
Balcetis, E., Dunning, D. A., & Miller, R. L. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013195 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Schwartz Values Clusters in the United States and China
Lee, J. A., Soutar, G. N., Daly, T. M., & Louviere, J. J. (2011) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022110396867 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“This has been attributed to various factors, including East Asians perceiving themselves as less consistent across situations, seeking information outside the individual to explain behavior, and incorporating in-group members into the self (Heine, 2001).”
Background
Cultural Psychiatry: Research Strategies and Future Directions
Kirmayer, L. J., & Ban, L. (2013) · Advances in psychosomatic medicine · doi:10.1159/000348742 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Change over time in obedience: The jury's still out, but it might be decreasing.
Twenge, J. M. (2009) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0014475 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
A Measurement Model for Dignity, Face, and Honor Cultural Norms
Yao, J., Ramirez‐Marin, J. Y., Brett, J. M., Aslani, S., & Semnani‐Azad, Z. (2017) · Management and Organization Review · doi:10.1017/mor.2017.49 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“In face cultures, self-worth is primarily dependent on people’s relative positions in a stable social hierarchy, and on the extent to which they © 2017 The International Association for Chinese Management Research fulfill their role obligations in that hierarchy (Heine, 2001).”
Background
Chinese children’s evaluations of white lies: Weighing the consequences for recipients
Ma, F., Xu, F., Heyman, G. D., & Lee, K. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.015 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“There is evidence that people in East Asian cultures tend to place a high value on adjusting one's behavior to the role requirements of a range of social situations (Gao, 1998; Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).”
Background
Culture, method, and the content of self-concepts: Testing trait, individual–self-primacy, and cultural psychology perspectives
del Prado, A. M., Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Miramontes, L. G., Whitty, M. T., Curtis, G. J., Vargas‐Flores, J. D. J., Ibáñez‐Reyes, J., Ortiz, F. A., & Reyes, J. A. S. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.02.002 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Similarly, cultural psychologists argue that the self is a cultural construction, and that we can expect significant cultural differences in both content and processes associated with the self (Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluential
In the Land of the Free, Interdependent Action Undermines Motivation
Hamedani, M. G., Markus, H. R., & Fu, A. S. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612452864 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“According to this independent schema, “good” behavior is characterized by acting autonomously, feeling in control, and determining one’s own outcomes free from others’ influence (Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 2003; Triandis, 1989).”
Background
Cultural concepts of distress and complex PTSD: Future directions for research and treatment
Heim, E., Karatzias, T., & Maercker, A. R. A. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102143 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The cultural shaping of alexithymia: Values and externally oriented thinking in a Chinese clinical sample
Dere, J., Tang, Q., Zhu, X., Cai, L., Yao, S., & Ryder, A. G. (2012) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.10.013 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“These authors proposed that EOT may be promoted in a Chinese context due to greater cultural emphasis on social harmony, relationships, and contextual factors, with relatively less emphasis on individual emotional experience [17].”
Background
Culture and inattentional blindness: A global workspace perspective
Wallace, R. (2006) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.10.006 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Evaluating Claims People Make About Themselves: The Development of Skepticism
Heyman, G. D., Fu, G., & Lee, K. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01003.x · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“One such difference is that in the United States, the goal of viewing oneself positively tends to be highly valued by the Euro-American culture, and individuals tend to emphasize positive information about themselves and others (Heine, 2001; Miller, Wang, Sandel, & Cho, 2002).”
Background
Unpacking Cultural Differences in Alexithymia
Dere, J., Falk, C. F., & Ryder, A. G. (2012) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022111430254 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“These authors proposed that higher levels of EOT within a Chinese context might be driven by greater cultural emphasis on interpersonal relationships, social harmony, and contextual factors, and relatively less emphasis on inner emotional experience (e.g., Heine, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).”
Background
Individual and collective temporal self-evaluation: Evidence from behavior and ERP
ZHANG, F., Yu, P. I., & Xiaobao, L. I. (2024) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2024.00447 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-regulation and control in personality functioning
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.027 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Event centrality of positive and negative autobiographical memories to identity and life story across cultures
Scherman, A. Z., Salgado, S., Shao, Z.-F., & Berntsen, D. (2015) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2014.962997 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
What is Zeitgeist? Examining period-specific cultural patterns
Krause, M. (2019) · Poetics · doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2019.02.003 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“…in romanticism and nationalism (Herder, 2010 [1772; Herder, 2010 [1772], see Williams, 1985), has been central to the tradition of anthropology (Benedict, 1934) and continues to be used in cross-cultural and cross-national comparative research (e.g. D’Andrade, 1995; Heine, 2002; Hofstede, 2003).”
Background
Decolonising “Data Colonialism” Propositions for Investigating the Realpolitik of Today’s Networked Ecology
Calzati, S. (2020) · Television & New Media · doi:10.1177/1527476420957267 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Social Beliefs as Determinants of Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help among Ethnically Diverse University Students
Kuo, B. C. H., Kwantes, C. T., Towson, S. M. J., & Nanson, K. M. (2006) · Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy · Cited by 55 · see citing works
My face, my heart: Cultural differences in integrated bodily self-awareness
Maister, L., & Manos Tsakiris, A. (2013) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2013.808613 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Conversely, East Asian cultures tend to hold an “interdependent” self-construal, in which interpersonal relationships are stressed, the self seen as embedded in a social context, and group harmony and cooperation are valued (e.g., Heine, 2001).”
Background
Personality in cross-cultural perspective
Dragūns, J. G. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.035 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Varieties of Global Psychology: Cultural Diversity and Constructions of the Self
Kirmayer, L. J., Adeponle, A. B., & Dzokoto, V. A. A. (2018) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95816-0_2 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“These differences result in variations in basic psychological processes including the fundamental attributional bias that emphasizes individual rather than contextual explanations for behavior and self-enhancement biases that are held to maintain self-esteem (Heine 2001, 2015).”
Background
Attachment and Amae
Rothbaum, F. M., Kakinuma, M., Nagaoka, R., & Azuma, H. (2007) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022107302315 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“…behaved and well mannered, the focus is on traits that promise the maximization of one’s full potential (cf. Harwood et al., 1995; Triandis, 1995) rather than on self-malleability and active efforts to modify the self to fit in with others and the environment (Heine, 2001; Kitayama & Markus, 1999).”
Background
The Effect of Culture on Trust in Automation: Reliability and Workload
Chien, S.-Y., Lewis, M., Sycara, K., Liu, J.-S., & Kumru, A. (2018) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/3230736 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“So, self-worth is interdependent with a person’s role in a stable social hierarchy and on fulfillment of role obligations [79].”
Background
Current Perspectives in the Study of Personality Across Cultures
Church, A. T. (2010) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691610375559 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Give me your self: Gifts are liked more when they match the giver's characteristics
Paolacci, G., Straeter, L. M., & de Hooge, I. E. (2015) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2015.01.006 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Disentangling the Process and Content of Self-Awareness: A Review, Critical Assessment, and Synthesis
Chon, D., & Sitkin, S. B. (2021) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2018.0079 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Reasoning About the Disclosure of Success and Failure to Friends Among Children in the United States and China
Heyman, G., Fu, G.-Y., & Lee, K. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.908 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“This contrasts with norms in North America, in which acknowledging one’s personal achievements and good deeds is frequently seen as a legitimate way to pursue the goal of developing a positive self-image (Heine, 2001; Miller, Wang, Sandel, & Cho, 2002).”

Cultural psychology of the self: A renewed look at independence and interdependence
Kitayama, S. (2002) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203989432-48 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-concept Consistency across Cultures
Yang, L. (2008)
Julie Spencer-Rodgers and Kaiping Peng
Sorrentino, R. M., Cohen, D., Olson, J. M., & Zanna, M. P. (2005) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410612793-15
Culture and self-concept stability: Consistency across and within contexts among Asian Americans and European Americans.
English, T., & Chen, S. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.478 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Culture and Context-sensitive Self: The Amount and Meaning of Context-sensitivity of Phenomenal Self Differ Across Cultures
Kashima, Y., Kashima, E. S., Farsides, T., Kim, U., Strack, F., Werth, L., & Yuki, M. (2004) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/13576500342000095a · Cited by 82 · see citing works

Authors: Heine, S. J.
Affiliations: University of British Columbia (CA)
Corresponding author: Heine, Steven J.
ORCID: Heine, Steven J.
Venue: Journal of Personality
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2001-12
Volume: 69
Issue: 6
Pages: 881-905
ISSN: 0022-3506 (ISSN-L)
1467-6494
DOI: 10.1111/1467-6494.696168
OpenAlex: W2133409609
Cited by: 531
References: 84
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 28
FWCI: 8.13
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 173 d)
Locations: Journal of Personality (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords: self-concept, East Asian culture, North American culture, self-consistency, self-flexibility, self-other relations, self-enhancement, self-criticism, cross-cultural personality
MeSH terms: Affect, Asia, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Culture, Ethnicity, Humans, Motivation, Personality, Self Concept, United States

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Self as Cultural Product: An Examination of East Asian and North American Selves

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks