Does affective polarization undermine democratic norms or accountability? Maybe not
Open accessAbstract
Scholars warn that affective polarization undermines democratic norms and accountability. They speculate that if citizens were less affectively polarized, they would be less likely to endorse norm violations, overlook copartisan politicians’ shortcomings, oppose compromise, adopt their party's views, or misperceive economic conditions. We advance reasons to doubt that affective polarization influences political choices. We support this argument with five experiments that manipulate citizens’ affective polarization with multiple approaches. We then trace the downstream consequences of manipulating citizens’ affective polarization, such as their reactions to information about their actual representatives in Congress. In our experiments (total N = 12,341), we “rewind” the equivalent of three decades of change in affective polarization but find no evidence that these changes influence many political outcomes, only general questions about interpersonal attitudes. Our results suggest caution when assuming that reducing affective polarization would meaningfully bolster democratic norms or accountability.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Factual belief polarization may be fueled by increasing levels of affective polarization.
“Likewise, factual belief polarization may also be fueled by increasing levels of affective polarization (Broockman et al., 2023;Jenke, 2023).”
From Factual belief polarization between Democrats and Republicans: source or epiphenomenon of ideological and affective polarization? (2024) · cites this paper as Broockman et al., 2023
A recent survey experiment found no relationship between affective polarization and democratic attitudes.
“Notably, the evidence is not completely unequivocal: a recent survey experiment found no relationship between affective polarization and democratic attitudes (Broockman et al., 2023).”
From Political polarization and corruption: A theoretical and empirical review (2024) · cites this paper as Broockman et al., 2023
Work with existing measures has been inconclusive about the relationship between affective polarization and support for partisan-based anti-democratic attitudes.
“Yet, work with the existing measures has been inconclusive about the relationship between affective polarization and support for partisan-based anti-democratic attitudes (e.g., ignoring checks and balances if one's party is in power) (cf.Broockman et al., 2023;Druckman et al., 2023Druckman et al., , 2024;;Kingzette et al., 2021;Lelkes & Westwood, 2017;Tappin & McKay, 2019;Voelkel et al., 2023;West”
From Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures (2026) · cites this paper as Broockman et al., 2023
Political sectarianism better captures strong feelings that lead partisans to sacrifice democratic norms, while affective polarization captures milder forms of affect influencing social relationships.
“The former does a better job enveloping strong feelings that lead partisans to sacrifice democratic norms such as checks and balances or obeying unfavorable court rulings.11 The latter captures milder forms of affect that influence social relationships, such as willingness to work with members of the other party (e.g., Broockman et al., 2023;Lelkes & Westwood, 2017) and cue-taking in terms of”
From Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures (2026) · cites this paper as Broockman et al., 2023
Cites
The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States
Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S. J. (2019) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-073034 · Cited by 3,317 · see citing works
Self-citationIyengar, S., Sood, G., & Lelkes, Y. (2012) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfs038 · Cited by 2,748 · see citing works
Slovic, P., Finucane, M., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.025 · Cited by 2,349 · see citing works
GRAHAM, M. H., & SVOLIK, M. W. (2020) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055420000052 · Cited by 1,044 · see citing works
Political Sectarianism in America
Finkel, E. J., Bail, C. A., Cikara, M., Ditto, P. H., Iyengar, S., Klar, S., Mason, L., McGrath, M. C., Nyhan, B., Rand, D. G., et al. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abe1715 · Cited by 931 · see citing works
What do we measure when we measure affective polarization?
Druckman, J. N., & Levendusky, M. S. (2019) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfz003 · Cited by 615 · see citing works
McCoy, J., & Somer, M. (2019) · The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716218818782 · Cited by 595 · see citing works
The Parties in Our Heads: Misperceptions about Party Composition and Their Consequences
Ahler, D. J., & Sood, G. (2018) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/697253 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
Americans, Not Partisans: Can Priming American National Identity Reduce Affective Polarization?
Levendusky, M. S. (2018) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/693987 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
How affective polarization undermines support for democratic norms
Kingzette, J., Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2021) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfab029 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
The Economics of Discrimination
Dewey, D., & Becker, G. S. (1958) · Southern Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/1055714 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
The Limits of Partisan Prejudice
Lelkes, Y., & Westwood, S. J. (2017) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/688223 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Self-citationInaccurate group meta-perceptions drive negative out-group attributions in competitive contexts
Lees, J., & Cikara, M. (2019) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-019-0766-4 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Interventions Reducing Affective Polarization Do Not Necessarily Improve Anti-Democratic Attitudes
Voelkel, J. G., Chu, J., Stagnaro, M., Mernyk, J. S., Redekopp, C., Pink, S. L., Druckman, J., Rand, D. G., & Willer, R. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/7evmp · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Electoral Incentives and Partisan Conflict in Congress: Evidence from Survey Experiments
Harbridge, L., & Malhotra, N. A. (2011) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00517.x · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M. S., & Ryan, J. B. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Political Science · doi:10.1017/xps.2020.28 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Madison's Constitution Under Stress: A Developmental Analysis of Political Polarization
Pierson, P., & Schickler, E. (2020) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-033629 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
The Inseparability of Race and Partisanship in the United States
Westwood, S. J., & Peterson, E. (2022) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-020-09648-9 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationOur Common Bonds: Using What Americans Share to Help Bridge the Partisan Divide
Levendusky, M. (2023) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226824697.001.0001 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Motivated reasoning and democratic accountability
LITTLE, A. T., SCHNAKENBERG, K. E., & TURNER, I. R. (2022) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055421001209 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Ottati, V., & Wyer, R. S. (1993) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9780822396697-013 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Partisanship as Social Identity; Implications for the Study of Party Polarization
Iyengar, S., & Krupenkin, M. (2018) · The Forum · doi:10.1515/for-2018-0003 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The Subversion Dilemma: Why Voters Who Cherish Democracy Participate in Democratic BackslidingPreprint
Braley, A., Lenz, G., Adjodah, D., Rahnama, H., & Pentland, A. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/my987 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The short-term, circumscribed, and conditional effects of cross-partisan conversationPreprint
Santoro, E., & Broockman, D. (2021) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/km3q2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Megastudy testing 25 treatments to reduce antidemocratic attitudes and partisan animosity
Voelkel, J. G., Stagnaro, M., Chu, J., Pink, S. L., Mernyk, J. S., Redekopp, C., Ghezae, I., Cashman, M., Adjodah, D., Allen, L., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/y79u5 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
A review and provocation: On polarization and platforms
Kreiss, D., & McGregor, S. C. (2024) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448231161880 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Argyle, L. P., Bail, C. A., Busby, E. C., Gubler, J. R., Howe, T., Rytting, C., Sorensen, T., & Wingate, D. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2311627120 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Santoro, E., & Broockman, D. E. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abn5515 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Self-citationVan Bavel, J. J., Robertson, C. E., del Rosario, K., Rasmussen, J., & Rathje, S. (2024) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-022123-110258 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Affective polarization and misinformation belief
Jenke, L. (2024) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-022-09851-w · Cited by 85 · see citing works
How to study democratic backsliding
Druckman, J. N. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12942 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Rekker, R., & Harteveld, E. (2024) · Acta Politica · doi:10.1057/s41269-022-00265-4 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Differentiating the sources of post‐election partisan affect warming
Gidron, N., & Sheffer, L. (2024) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12641 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Who Supports Democratic Backsliding? Evidence from Israel
Gidron, N., Margalit, Y., Sheffer, L., & Yakir, I. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/zxukm · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Establishing the construct and predictive validity of brief measures of affective polarization
Kasper, J., Schumacher, G., & Bakker, B. N. (2025) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.70022 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rekker, R. (2024) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2024.1254826 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Political polarization and corruption: A theoretical and empirical review
Hajnal, Á. (2024) · Intersections · doi:10.17356/ieejsp.v10i2.1310 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Palacios Brihuega, I., Garrido Rubia, A., & Martínez Rodríguez, A. (2025) · Revista Internacional de Sociología · doi:10.3989/ris.2024.82.4.1304 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures
Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2026) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70152 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Broockman, D. E., Kalla, J. L., & Westwood, S. J.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Yale University (US)
- Dartmouth College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Broockman, David E.
- Venue
- American Journal of Political Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2022-08-17
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 808-828
- ISSN
- 0092-5853 (ISSN-L)
- 1540-5907
- OpenAlex
- W4292103612
- Cited by
- 297
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 75 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 7
- FWCI
- 177.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- escholarship.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Political Science (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Theory and Democracy
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Media Influence and Politics
- Keywords
- affective polarization, democratic norms, political accountability, members of Congress, political attitudes, norm violation, compromise, interpersonal attitudes
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
