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Verbal and Visuospatial Short-Term and Working Memory in Children: Are They Separable?
Open accessAbstract
This study explored the structure of verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory in children between ages 4 and 11 years. Multiple tasks measuring 4 different memory components were used to capture the cognitive processes underlying working memory. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the processing component of working memory tasks was supported by a common resource pool, while storage aspects depend on domain-specific verbal and visuospatial resources. This model is largely stable across this developmental period, although some evidence exists that the links between the domain-specific visuospatial construct and the domain-general processing construct were higher in the 4- to- 6-year age group. The data also suggest that all working memory components are in place by 4 years of age.
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“These approaches are based on compelling evidence that the working memory system is characterized by a single central executive controller that operates on the functionally and anatomically separate phonological and visuospatial short-term memory subsystems (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996).”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Support for this model includes replicated evidence that the phonological and visuospatial storage systems are functionally and anatomically distinct, as well as replicated evidence supporting a single, domain-general central executive rather than separate central executive components for processing phonological and visuospatial information (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Developmentally, there is evidence that the different components of working memory follow different trajectories of maturation, and that this divergence of developmental pathways begins relatively early (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology (2015) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Working memory can be divided based on whether it refers to verbal or visual-spatial information, and these systems can be further subdivided into short-term storage/maintenance and updating/processing components (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inhibitory control and working memory in post-institutionalized children (2013) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“There is substantial evidence that it is not. Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“However, verbal and visuo-spatial memory span are largely independent in both children and adults (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Baddeley, Papagno, & Vallar, 1988; Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano, & Wilson, 1999).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
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Working Memory and Number Sense as Predictors of Mathematical (Dis-)Ability
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“CBTT have been found to have good test-rested reliability (r = .81, r = .89; Alloway et al., 2006) in preschoolers.”
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Working memory predictors of mathematics across the middle primary school years
Allen, K., Giofrè, D., Higgins, S., & Adams, J. W. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12339 · Cited by 39
Mental capacity and working memory in chemistry: algorithmic versus open-ended problem solving
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Matte‐Gagné, C., Bernier, A., Sirois, M., Lalonde, G., & Hertz, S. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12807 · Cited by 40
The contributions of motor skill proficiency to cognitive and social development in early childhood
Capio, C. M., Mendoza, N. B., Jones, R. A., Masters, R. S. W., & Lee, K. L. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-79538-1 · Cited by 56
Bizzaro, M., Giofrè, D., Girelli, L., & Cornoldi, C. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.01.013 · Cited by 29
Miller, S., McCulloch, S., & Jarrold, C. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00524 · Cited by 34
“…2015 | Volume 6 | Article 524 have shown that children’s working memory performance draws on either their verbal or visuo-spatial short-term memory capacities, depending on whether the task involves the maintenance of either verbal or visual information (Bayliss et al., 2003; Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundThe predictive ability of IQ and Working Memory scores in literacy in an adult population
Alloway, T. P., & Gregory, D. (2012) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.10.004 · Cited by 30
Self-citationIntelligence and Specific Cognitive Abilities in Children
Tillman, C. M., Bohlin, G., Sørensen, L., & Lundervold, A. J. (2009) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001.30.4.209 · Cited by 29
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A Neural Mechanism for Surprise-related Interruptions of Visuospatial Working Memory
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The Language, Working Memory, and Other Cognitive Demands of Verbal Tasks
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“As has been suggested in previous studies (Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole & Pickering, 2000; Logie, 1995; Miyake et al., 2001), it may be that the act of briefly maintaining visuospatial information in dynamic tasks such as those in this study imposed processing demands, at least for our young…”
ResultSankalaite, S., Huizinga, M., Warreyn, P., Dewandeleer, J., & Baeyens, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1240741 · Cited by 42
“Given that these two distinct components involve different cognitive processes and pose different cognitive demands, to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of an individual’s WM capacities, they should be assessed independently (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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“We expected greater coherence between measures of verbal and visuospatial WM and their respective STM predictors (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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“Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering (2006) assessed central executive functions with both visuospatial and verbal tasks.”
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“Test reliability of the AWMA is reported in Alloway et al. (2006) and test validity in Alloway et al. (2008).”
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“The test–retest reliability for the FDS observed in a sample of 709 children from 59 to 140 months of age (Alloway et al., 2006) was .84, and for the BDS it was .64.”
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“The backward measure, which requires storage and manipulation of the information prior to recall, is thought to tap into WM capacity (Alloway et al. , 2006).”
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Boxell, O. (2016) · Open Linguistics · doi:10.1515/opli-2016-0017 · Cited by 25
The Role of Working Memory in Early Literacy and Numeracy Skills in Kindergarten and First Grade
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“Demands imposed on WM by training may have been adequate to stimulate improvements at the cognitive and/or neural level, leading to lasting improvements over time, which must also be consistent enough to be detected above sustained improvements in WM functioning that take place during childhood (Alloway et al., 2006;…”
BackgroundReading Fluency Measurements in EFA FTI Partner Countries
Abadzi, H. (2011) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/26822 · Cited by 24
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“…after the onset of the illness, or whether the illness alters or halts their developmental trajectory, although there is some evidence for the latter.5,48 Alloway et al. (2006) found that a three-factor model best fit the relationship between verbal and visuospatial WkM development in children.”
BackgroundExecutive function behaviours in children with specific language impairment (SLI)
Cuperus, J. M., Vugs, B., Scheper, A., & Hendriks, M. P. H. (2014) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1179/2047387714y.0000000049 · Cited by 28
“Evidence suggests that the trajectory of working memory development is linear from 4 to 15 years of age, with the largest development between the age of 5 and 11 years (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundNevo, E., & Bar‐Kochva, I. (2015) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12084 · Cited by 26
van der Ven, S. V. D., Klaiber, J. D., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2017) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2016.1150421 · Cited by 30
“…according to the often-used Baddeley model (Baddeley, 1992; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), is a system with limited capacity, especially in children (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Huizinga, Dolan, & van der Molen, 2006; van der Ven, Kroesbergen, Boom, & Leseman, 2012) but also in adults…”
The effect of articulatory suppression and manual tapping on serial recall
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“Support for the fractionation of verbal and visuospatial short-term memory comes from data on double dissociations obtained under dual-task conditions, neuropsychological patients (see Meiser & Klauer, 1999 , for an overview), and development evidence (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006 ).”
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“The test–retest reliability of the Automated Working Memory Assessment digit recall subtest is .84 (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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Adapting, correcting and sequencing movements: does working-memory capacity play a role?
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“…cognitive impairments (Capio, Poolton, Sit, Holmstrom, et al., 2013), indicating thatmost childrenwill benefit from practice that places fewer demands on working memory, probably because workingmemory capacity is still developing throughout childhood (Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole et al., 2004).”
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“Test-retest reliability was 0.64 (Alloway et al., 2006) and 0.62 (Gathercole et al., 2004), respectively.”
InfluentialWorking Memory: From Neural Activity to the Sentient Mind
Jaffe, R. J., & Constantinidis, C. (2021) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c210005 · Cited by 33
“Tasks that assess verbal and visuospatial WM and executive control show parallel developmental profiles (3, 153).”
Phonological awareness and working memory: Comparisons between South African and British children
Cockcroft, K., & Alloway, T. P. (2012) · Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies · doi:10.2989/16073614.2012.693706 · Cited by 23
“The existence and functioning of these stores has been established in studies of children and adults, as well as neuro-imaging research (Bayliss et al., 2003; Jonides et al., 2005; Alloway et al., 2006).”
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Effects of ADHD on Writing Composition Product and Process in School-Age Students
Rodríguez, C., Torrance, M., Betts, L. R., Cerezo, R., & García, T. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054717707048 · Cited by 23
de Bruijn, A. G. M., van der Fels, I. M. J., Renken, R. J., Königs, M., Meijer, A., Oosterlaan, J., Kostons, D. D. N. M., Visscher, C., Bosker, R., Smith, J., et al. (2021) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2021.105812 · Cited by 24
Screening for Working Memory Deficits in the Classroom
Normand, S., & Tannock, R. (2012) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712445062 · Cited by 23
The roles of feedback and working memory in children’s reference production
Wardlow, L., & Heyman, G. D. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.05.016 · Cited by 24
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Morphological Awareness and Learning to Read Chinese and English
Zhang, J., Lin, T., Wei, J., & Anderson, R. C. (2013) · Literacy studies · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7380-6_1 · Cited by 24
Can infant self-locomotion and spatial exploration predict spatial memory at school age?
Oudgenoeg‐Paz, O., Leseman, P. P. M., & Volman, M. J. M. (2013) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2013.803470 · Cited by 22
“Furthermore, several studies suggest that unlike other spatial abilities, there are no gender differences in spatial memory (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundTyagi, R., Aggarwal, P., Mohanty, M., Dutt, V., & Anand, A. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-68381-9 · Cited by 22
Tseng, C.-C., Hu, J.-F., Chang, L., & Chen, H. (2022) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-022-10352-9 · Cited by 22
“This result was also consistent with the assumption that central attentional resources are shared across verbal and visuospatial working memories (Alloway et al., 2006).”
ResultMcKeon, S. D., Calabro, F. J., Thorpe, R. V., de la Fuente, L. A., Foran, W., Parr, A. C., Jones, S. R., & Luna, B. (2023) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120112 · Cited by 23
The development of early numeracy ability in kindergartners with limited working memory skills
Toll, S. W. M., & Luit, J. E. H. V. (2013) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.03.006 · Cited by 22
Milligan, R., & Cockcroft, K. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00348 · Cited by 22
“This dominance begins to shift to a gradually increasing reliance on verbal encoding from approximately 6 years, the stage at which most children are exposed to literacy instruction (Hitch et al., 1988, 1993; Conant et al., 2003; Alloway et al., 2006; Boivin et al., 2010a).”
BackgroundTarle, S. J., Alderson, R. M., Patros, C. H. G., Arrington, E. F., & Roberts, D. K. (2018) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2018.1519068 · Cited by 22
Scionti, N., Zampini, L., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10081391 · Cited by 35
“Forward span-like tests were considered to measure short-term memory since they did not require working memory processes [75]; therefore, we did not include them in the meta-analysis.”
MethodExecutive Functioning: Relationship with High School Student Role Performance
Mann, D., Snover, R., Boyd, J. R., List, A. J., Kuhn, A. J., Devereaux, B. N., Chenoweth, S. M., & Middaugh, G. L. (2015) · The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.15453/2168-6408.1153 · Cited by 26
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Visuospatial Working Memory in 7- to 12-Year-Old Children with Disruptive Behavior Disorders
Saarinen, S., Fontell, T., Vuontela, V., Carlson, S., & Aronen, E. T. (2014) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-014-0449-3 · Cited by 24
“WM capacity is primarily driven by a domain-general mechanism [25] and the processing requirements of the different tasks (verbal, spatial) share the involvement of executive functioning [24] or controlled attention [26].”
BackgroundAuditory and verbal memory predictors of spoken language skills in children with cochlear implants
de Hoog, B. E., Langereis, M. C., van Weerdenburg, M., Keuning, J., Knoors, H. E. T., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2016) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2016.06.019 · Cited by 21
Cardillo, R., Menazza, C., & Mammarella, I. C. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000472 · Cited by 23
Traverso, L., Viterbori, P., Malagoli, C., & Usai, M. C. (2020) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100909 · Cited by 31
The Associations Between Music Training, Musical Working Memory, and Visuospatial Working Memory
Silas, S. J., Müllensiefen, D., Gelding, R. W., Frieler, K., & Harrison, P. M. C. (2022) · Music Perception An Interdisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1525/mp.2022.39.4.401 · Cited by 27
Darling, S., Parker, M.-J., Goodall, K., Havelka, J., & Allen, R. J. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.10.004 · Cited by 21
“…in relationships between modality-specific STM systems might be expected to occur somewhere after 6 or 7 years of age as visuospatial STM (arguably) becomes differentiated from the CE (Alloway et al., 2006) and as verbal rehearsal becomes available as a mnemonic method (Gathercole & Hitch, 1993).”
MethodWorking memory updating as a predictor of academic attainment
Lechuga, M. T., Pelegrina, S., Peláez-Alfonso, J. L., Martín‐Puga, M. E., & Justicia‐Galiano, M. J. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.950193 · Cited by 24
Preschool Executive Function Profiles: Implications for Math Achievement in Grades 1 and 3
Usai, M. C., Viterbori, P., & Traverso, L. (2018) · Journal of Research in Childhood Education · doi:10.1080/02568543.2018.1496957 · Cited by 21
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., & Wells, E. L. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715608439 · Cited by 20
van Iterson, L., & de Jong, P. F. (2017) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2017.10.018 · Cited by 20
“Verbal short-termmemory (STM) is often regarded as a subcomponent of WM [5].”
Backgroundvan der Veer, G., Kamphorst, E., Cantell, M., Minnaert, A. E. M. G., & Houwen, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02208 · Cited by 23
“The ‘Forward Corsi Block’ showed good test-retest reliability in preschool children (Alloway et al., 2006, 2009).”
BackgroundThe Role of Working Memory on Writing Processes
Vita, F. D., Schmidt, S., Tinti, C., & Re, A. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.738395 · Cited by 21
“Empirical findings (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006; Martinussen and Major, 2011) indeed suggest that there are different levels of performance in Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 August 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 738395 children when they perform tasks that mainly require attentional…”
BackgroundThe contribution of inhibitory control to early literacy skills in 4‐ to 5‐year‐old children
Traverso, L., Viterbori, P., Gandolfi, E., Zanobini, M., & Usai, M. C. (2022) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.11.010 · Cited by 25
Cuevas, J. A., Childers, G. M., & Dawson, B. L. (2023) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2023.100209 · Cited by 28
Inference, Reconceptualization, Insight, and Efficiency Along Intellectual Growth: A General Theory
Δημητρίου, Α., Spanoudis, G. C., & Shayer, M. (2014) · Enfance · doi:10.4074/s0013754514003097 · Cited by 25
The developmental influence of primary memory capacity on working memory and academic achievement.
Hall, D., Jarrold, C., Towse, J. N., & Zarandi, A. L. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039464 · Cited by 22
Infant Attention and Age 3 Executive Function.
Kraybill, J. H., Kim‐Spoon, J., & Bell, M. A. (2019) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 21
Lockl, K., Attig, M., Nusser, L., & Wolter, I. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.751120 · Cited by 25
“…correlation may be traced back to the fact that underlying abilities or skills, such as short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning, are important preconditions for both reading and mathematical competencies (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006; Bull et al., 2008; Knievel et al., 2010).”
BackgroundEvaluating the impact of working memory training programmes on children – a systematic review
Randall, L., & Tyldesley, K. (2016) · Educational and Child Psychology · doi:10.53841/bpsecp.2016.33.1.34 · Cited by 21
Comprensión Lectora y Cálculo Matemático: El Rol de la Memoria de Trabajo en Niños de Edad Escolar
Vernucci, S., Juric, L. C., Andrés, M. L., & Burín, D. I. (2017) · Psykhe (Santiago) · doi:10.7764/psykhe.26.2.1047 · Cited by 43
“…desde los cuatro años hasta entrada la adolescencia, la MT presenta una organización estructural consistente con este modelo y, además, su capacidad se incrementa de forma sostenida a lo largo de dicho período (Alloway, Gathercole & Pickering, 2006; Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge & Wearing, 2004).”
BackgroundEvaluation and training of Executive Functions in genocide survivors. The case of Yazidi children
Pellizzoni, S., Apuzzo, G. M., Vita, C. D., Agostini, T., & Passolunghi, M. C. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12798 · Cited by 22
Dutra, N. B., Chen, L., Anum, A., Bürger, O., Davis, H. E., Dzokoto, V. A. A., Fong, F. T. K., Ghelardi, S., Mendez, K., Messer, E. J. E., et al. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13228 · Cited by 19
“The development of visuospatial, working, and short-term memory components has shown similar trajectories among 4- to 6-year-old children (Alloway et al., 2006) and support a generaldomain model of working memory (Baddeley, 2001) and "common EF factor” theories (Engelhardt et al.”
BackgroundExploring the Impact of Cognition on Young Children's Ability to Navigate a Speech-Generating Device
Robillard, M., Mayer-Crittenden, C., Roy‐Charland, A., Minor-Corriveau, M., & Bélanger, R. (2013) · Augmentative and Alternative Communication · doi:10.3109/07434618.2013.849754 · Cited by 20
The development of verbal and visual working memory processes: A latent variable approach
Koppenol‐Gonzalez, G. V., Bouwmeester, S., & Vermunt, J. K. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.10.001 · Cited by 22
Further analysis of the effects of positive reinforcement on working memory in children with autism
Baltruschat, L., Hasselhorn, M., Tarbox, J., Dixon, D. R., Najdowski, A. C., Mullins, R. D., & Gould, E. R. (2010) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.09.015 · Cited by 22
Hauser‐Cram, P., Woodman, A. C., & Heyman, M. (2014) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7588-119.6.536 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Alloway, Tracy Packiam
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-11-01
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1698-1716
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- OpenAlex
- W2130954429
- Cited by
- 938
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 29.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- working memory, short-term memory, verbal memory, visuospatial memory, children, memory structure, domain-general processing, cognitive development, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Space Perception, Verbal Behavior, Visual Perception
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