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Verbal and Visuospatial Short-Term and Working Memory in Children: Are They Separable?
Open accessAbstract
This study explored the structure of verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory in children between ages 4 and 11 years. Multiple tasks measuring 4 different memory components were used to capture the cognitive processes underlying working memory. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the processing component of working memory tasks was supported by a common resource pool, while storage aspects depend on domain-specific verbal and visuospatial resources. This model is largely stable across this developmental period, although some evidence exists that the links between the domain-specific visuospatial construct and the domain-general processing construct were higher in the 4- to- 6-year age group. The data also suggest that all working memory components are in place by 4 years of age.
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“These approaches are based on compelling evidence that the working memory system is characterized by a single central executive controller that operates on the functionally and anatomically separate phonological and visuospatial short-term memory subsystems (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996).”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Support for this model includes replicated evidence that the phonological and visuospatial storage systems are functionally and anatomically distinct, as well as replicated evidence supporting a single, domain-general central executive rather than separate central executive components for processing phonological and visuospatial information (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Developmentally, there is evidence that the different components of working memory follow different trajectories of maturation, and that this divergence of developmental pathways begins relatively early (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology (2015) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Working memory can be divided based on whether it refers to verbal or visual-spatial information, and these systems can be further subdivided into short-term storage/maintenance and updating/processing components (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inhibitory control and working memory in post-institutionalized children (2013) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“There is substantial evidence that it is not. Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“However, verbal and visuo-spatial memory span are largely independent in both children and adults (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Baddeley, Papagno, & Vallar, 1988; Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano, & Wilson, 1999).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
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Verbal and visuospatial working memory in immersion-educated bilingual children
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Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
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“Indeed, young children have been shown to rely more on visual codes than verbal labels (Alloway et al., 2006), and therefore are unlikely to utilise verbal rules when acquiring motor skills.”
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“The additional requirement to recall items in reverse order imposes a substantial attentionally-demanding processing load similar to the executive loads of other WM tasks (Alloway et al., 2006; Bull et al., 2008).”
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Dynamic Assessment in Preschoolers with Down Syndrome and Nonspecific Intellectual Disability
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“Furthermore, Alloway et al. (2006) suggest that visuospatial STM tasks in typically developing preschoolers may demand executive resources that are not required in older children.”
BackgroundBaseline Stroke Literacy of Young Children Based on “FAST 112 Heroes” Program
Tsakpounidou, K., Psomiadis, S., Pourliaka, T., Akritidou, M., & Proios, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.638516 · Cited by 10
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Lee, C. (2023) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2023.2179981 · Cited by 12
“…memory consists of two domain-specific components and separate cognitive resources are allocated for processing verbal and visuospatial contents (T. P. Alloway et al., 2006; Shah & Miyake, 1996), basic reading skills may have different relationships with verbal and visuospatial working memory.”
BackgroundKuhn, J. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.04.009 · Cited by 10
Working memory and sentence recall in children
Alloway, T. P., & Ledwon, F. (2014) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2013.12.001 · Cited by 13
Self-citationHow Children Learn to Discover Their Environment
Mulder, H., Oudgenoeg‐Paz, O., Hellendoorn, A., & Jongmans, M. J. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801638-1.00009-4 · Cited by 10
“Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering (2006) investigated the development of memory for location using a Dot Matrix task as part of a larger working memory assessment in children aged 4 11 years of age.”
MethodCognitive Profile in Learning Mathematics With Open Calculation Based on Numbers Algorithm
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“A positive correlation between nonverbal and verbal WM is also typical (Alloway et al., 2006; Bayliss et al., 2003, 2005; Gathercole et al., 2004), as are positive correlations between age and both verbal and nonverbal WM.”
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“It is thought that the cognitive processes underlying working memory are in place from four years of age (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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Verbal Working Memory as a Longitudinal Mechanism of Vocabulary Problems in Preschoolers with ADHD
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“Phonological memory was measured using the Digit Span Forward task based on the Alloway Working Memory Assessment (AWMA; Alloway et al., 2006).”
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Measurement Invariance of Working Memory Measures across Two Arab Cultures
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Does Working Memory Mediate the Link Between Dispositional Optimism and Depressive Symptoms?
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“some information in mind while simultaneously processing the same or additional information [18,33].”
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Stevenson, C. E. (2008) · Leiden Repository (Leiden University) · Cited by 9
Executive Function and Spatial Skills in Children’s Block Play: A Cross-Cultural Comparison
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“…most scholars view EF as comprised of three overlapping components: (a) working memory, retaining, and recalling recently stored information (Alloway et al., 2006), (b) inhibitory control, consciously stopping a natural response to various stimuli (Best & Miller, 2010), and (c) cognitive…”
BackgroundEstrada‐Plana, V., Martínez-Escribano, A., Ros‐Morente, A., Mayoral, M., Castro-Quintas, Á., Vita‐Barrull, N., Terés-Lleida, N., March‐Llanes, J., Badia-Bafalluy, A., & Moya-Higueras, J. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14070642 · Cited by 20
“Previous studies showed that age [3], socio ‐ economic status (SES) [47], fluid reason ‐ ing [48,49] and math anxiety [50] could be related to STM and WM or could modulate cognitive trainings. level because of the grade, the sample was divided considering elementary grades [3].”
BackgroundMethodExamining the Antecedent Role of Movement Proficiency in Child Development: Study Protocol
Capio, C. M., Lee, K. L., Jones, R. A., & Masters, R. S. W. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.678874 · Cited by 11
“Neurocognitive research has shown that young children tend to rely more on visual codes and less on verbal labels (Alloway et al., 2006) and rely less on executive resources when performing dual tasks compared to older children (Ang and Lee, 2010).”
BackgroundIrrelevant speech impairs serial recall of verbal but not spatial items in children and adults
Leist, L., Lachmann, T., Schlittmeier, S. J., Georgi, M., & Klatte, M. (2022) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-022-01359-2 · Cited by 9
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“Previous research has also reported significant grade/age-group differences for both visual and auditory WM in school-age children [35,61–64], which is not fully reflected in the results of the current study, where we found decisive grade differences in visual WM but not auditory WM.”
Intervención diferencial de las funciones ejecutivas en inferencias elaborativas y puente
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“A third proposal suggests the co-existence of four domain-specific components, namely verbal storage/short-term memory (STM), visuospatial STM, verbal processing/ WM and visuospatial processing (Alloway et al., 2006; Miyake & Shah, 1999).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThinking about thinking about time
Redshaw, J., Bulley, A., & Suddendorf, T. (2019) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x19000414 · Cited by 8
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“We measured phonological working memory via backward digit recall task (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006) and orthographic working memory via delayed copying where children must copy from memory the orthographic pattern after shown for several seconds (Mo et al., 2018).”
MethodSlattery, E. J., Ryan, P. H., Fortune, D. G., & McAvinue, L. P. (2022) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2021.2022112 · Cited by 8
“Some researchers posit that Digit Span Backward tasks assess short-term storage (e.g., Rosen & Engle, 1997); however, the more widespread view in the child literature is that Backward Span and Sequencing Span tasks rely on the central executive of working memory (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundLatent Profile Analysis of Working Memory: Relations with Creativity and Academic Achievement
de Vink, I. C., Hornstra, L., & Kroesbergen, E. H. (2023) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2023.2183323 · Cited by 8
“Studies that simultaneously investigate verbal and visuo-spatial WM in relation to divergent thinking are scarce, thus ignoring potential differences in WM profile between participants (Alloway et al., 2006; Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
Aging’s Effect on Working Memory—Modality Comparison
Heled, E., & Levi, O. (2024) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines12040835 · Cited by 9
“The Visuospatial Span was performed better than the Digit Span among the younger groups, similar to several other studies, which suggested language skills are not yet well acquired at early elementary school age; therefore, the visuospatial modality might compensate for this [53,54].”
ResultNeuropsicologia do desenvolvimento da memória: da pré-escola ao período escolar
Dias, L. A. (2011) · Revista Neuropsicologia Latinoamericana · doi:10.5579/rnl.2011.0061 · Cited by 9
Al-Balushi, S. M., & Al-BATTASHI, I. A. (2013) · Journal of Turkish Science Education · Cited by 8
How semantic organisation influences primary school children’s working memory
Giofrè, D., Carretti, B., & Belacchi, C. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2016.1270950 · Cited by 8
Chalmers, K., & Freeman, E. (2018) · Australian journal of psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12207 · Cited by 8
Assessing children's cognitive flexibility with the Shape Trail Test
Chan, A., & Morgan, S.-J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198254 · Cited by 8
The working memory of individuals with Down Syndrome
Doerr, E. M., Carretti, B., & Lanfranchi, S. (2019) · International review of research in developmental disabilities · doi:10.1016/bs.irrdd.2019.06.006 · Cited by 8
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“The phonological memory task, which did not correlate with reading measures, did not tap working memory, as it relied on simple repetition of nonwords in an unchanged form, relying only on storage, but not on manipulation of the given material (cf. Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundToornstra, A., Hurks, P. P. M., der Elst, W. V., Kok, G., & Curfs, L. (2019) · Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology · doi:10.1007/s40817-019-00070-6 · Cited by 9
Wang, L., Liu, D., Chung, K. K. H., & Chu, S. (2020) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101883 · Cited by 8
The Relationship between Problem-Solving Skills and Memory Development in Preschool Children
Aydoğan, Y., & Özyürek, A. (2020) · Journal of History Culture and Art Research · doi:10.7596/taksad.v9i3.1988 · Cited by 8
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The role of working memory in following instructions
Yang, T. (2011) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 8
Okur, M., & Aksoy, V. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15030356 · Cited by 8
“The importance of WM enhancement programs is highlighted, noting that such interventions not only improve language skills in students with SLD but also contribute to advances in other cognitive abilities, such as mathematical problem-solving and logical reasoning (Alloway et al., 2006).”
Identifying early links between temperament, short-term and working memory in preschoolers
Visu‐Petra, L., Cheie, L., Câmpan, M., Scutelnicu, I., & Bengà, O. (2016) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2016.1246445 · Cited by 7
“This also suggests that visuospatial STM tasks draw more executive resources than the verbal STM measures (Alloway et al., 2006; Miyake, Friedman, Rettinger, Shah, & Hegarty, 2001).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe domain-specificity of serial order working memory
Tian, Y., Beier, M. E., & Fischer‐Baum, S. (2021) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01260-4 · Cited by 8
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Content-Specificity in Verbal Recall: A Randomized Controlled Study
Zirk‐Sadowski, J., Szűcs, D., & Holmes, J. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079528 · Cited by 7
“the phonological loop / verbal short-term memory and the visuo-spatial sketchpad, [7,11,17,24]).”
BackgroundMemory performance in Brazilian school-age children.
Dias, L. B. T., Pires, E. U., Charchat‐Fichman, H., & Landeira-Fernández, J. (2012) · Psychology & Neuroscience · doi:10.3922/j.psns.2012.2.06 · Cited by 7
과제 난이도에 따른 고기능 자폐아동의 작업기억 수행능력
김희진, & 임동선 (2012) · Eon'eo cheong'gag jang'ae yeon'gu/Communication sciences & disorders · Cited by 7
Traverso, L., Mantini, C., Usai, M. C., & Viterbori, P. (2015) · Cited by 7
Alloway, T. P., Moulder, R. G., Jr., Horton, J. C., Leedy, A. D., Archibald, L. M. D., Burín, D. I., Injoque‐Ricle, I., Passolunghi, M. C., & Santos, F. H. (2017) · Journal of Cognition and Culture · doi:10.1163/15685373-12340010 · Cited by 7
Self-citationŁockiewicz, M., Jaskulska, M., & Fawcett, A. J. (2020) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.1648 · Cited by 7
The structure of working memory during childhood: a systematic review
Vernucci, S., Juric, L. C., Zamora, E. V., & Richard’s, M. M. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2021.1887199 · Cited by 8
“These studies include participants aged 4–11 (Alloway et al., 2006), 5–12 (Michalczyk et al., 2013), and 6–10 (Swanson et al., 2019), 6–11 (Injoque-Ricle et al., 2012) and 6–15 years old (Gathercole et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAnálisis del funcionamiento de la memoria operativa en niños con trastornos en el aprendizaje.
Gaviria, T. O., & Fitzgerald, Ó. S. (2014) · Acta Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.14718/acp.2014.17.2.9 · Cited by 7
Extended cascade models of age and individual differences in children's fluid intelligence
Alwis, D. D., Hale, S., & Myerson, J. (2014) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.008 · Cited by 7
Jankowska, A. M., Bogdanowicz, M., & Shaw, S. R. (2012) · Acta Neuropsychologica · doi:10.5604/17307503.1008248 · Cited by 13
“Subsequent studies and complex models have confirmed the role of mental speed in explaining the variance in academic achievement (Beauducel & Kersting , 2002; Alloway et al., 2006; Taub et al., 2008; Vock et al., 2011).”
ResultDevelopment of the language proficiency of five- to seven-year-olds in rural areas
Poolman, B. G., Leseman, P. P. M., Doornenbal, J. M., & Minnaert, A. E. M. G. (2016) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2016.1203787 · Cited by 7
“The test–retest reliability of this subtest is .84 (Alloway et al., 2006).”
MethodRos, R., Gregg, D., Hart, K. C., & Graziano, P. A. (2018) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-018-9677-3 · Cited by 7
Innate or Acquired? – Disentangling Number Sense and Early Number Competencies
Siemann, J., & Petermann, F. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00571 · Cited by 11
“These in turn draw heavily on verbal WM capacities (Alloway et al., 2006), probably leading to a stronger connection between arithmetic and WM. Correspondingly, WM seems to be especially important for more sophisticated math operations such as subtraction (Caviola et al., 2014).”
BackgroundFeasibility of using a computer-assisted working memory training program for healthy older women
Ghavidel, F., Fadardi, J. S., Gatto, N. M., Sedaghat, F., & Tabibi, Z. (2020) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-020-00975-7 · Cited by 7
White, M. J. (2020) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006920948136 · Cited by 10
“Previous studies that have investigated the development of working memory have found that these components are in place from as young as 4 years of age (e.g. Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodZhang, L., & Reet, J. V. (2021) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-021-09990-w · Cited by 7
Hernández, S. E., Díaz, A., Jiménez, J. E., Martín, R., Rodríguez, C., & García, E. (2012) · European Journal of Education and Psychology · doi:10.30552/ejep.v5i1.75 · Cited by 7
Development and Training of Higher Order Cognitive Functions and their Interrelations
Nutley, S. B. (2011) · Figshare · Cited by 7
Cognition and behaviour in learning difficulties and ADHD: A dimensional approachPreprint
Gathercole, S. E., Astle, D. E., Manly, T., the CALM Team, & Holmes, J. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/260265 · Cited by 7
Self-citationBerry, E. D. J., Waterman, A., Baddeley, A., Hitch, G. J., & Allen, R. J. (2017) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/npzx2 · Cited by 7
Norambuena, Y. S., Sáez, K. L., Fuentes, D., Ponce, F. P., & Salas, G. (2022) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.01.005 · Cited by 6
Poon, K., Ho, M. S. H., Wang, L., Lee, H. M., Lau, W. K., & Chan, W. W. L. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-02065-1 · Cited by 10
“The use of more comprehensive and dynamic features of visual-spatial tasks could be explored in future studies, such as tracking visual sequences and transforming visual-spatial images [109, 110].”
BackgroundOrder of maturation of the components of the working memory from childhood to emerging adulthood
Muñoz-Pradas, R., Díaz-Palacios, M., Rodríguez‐Martínez, E. I., & Gómez, C. M. (2021) · Current Research in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.crbeha.2021.100062 · Cited by 6
Hu, Y., Yu, H. L., Lai, Y., Liu, J., Tan, Y., Lei, W., Zhang, J., Zhou, X., Cao, Y. J., Tang, Y., et al. (2023) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2023.110845 · Cited by 6
“Executive function and working memory were tested with a digital span test (DST, forward and backward) (Alloway et al., 2006; Diamond, 2013; St Clair-Thompson and Allen, 2013); executive function and semantic memory were assessed through the verbal fluency test (VFT) (Diamond, 2013); and attention,…”
Effects of Computerized Cognitive Training on Working Memory in a School Setting
Pumaccahua, T. T., Wong, E. H., & Wiest, D. J. (2017) · International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research · Cited by 6
Influences of executive functions on agility and comprehensive physical ability in kindergarteners
Aoyama, S., & Imai-Matsumura, K. (2020) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2020.1773811 · Cited by 6
Poon, K., Ho, M. S. H., & Wang, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718112 · Cited by 7
“…for a hidden object; later studies may use more dynamic and comprehensive aspects of visual-spatial tasks, such as tracking visual sequences and transforming visual-spatial images, to examine the link between RD and visual-spatial WM (e.g., Logie, 1995; Duff and Logie, 1999; Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSystematic Review and Meta-analysis of STM and WM in Long-Term CI Users
Akçakaya, H., Jayakody, D. M. P., & Doğan, M. (2022) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-022-00408-6 · Cited by 6
Dams, J. E., Schaars, M. M. H., Segers, E., & Blom, E. (2023) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.1750 · Cited by 6
Metadata
- Authors
- Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Alloway, Tracy Packiam
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-11-01
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1698-1716
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- OpenAlex
- W2130954429
- Cited by
- 938
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 29.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- working memory, short-term memory, verbal memory, visuospatial memory, children, memory structure, domain-general processing, cognitive development, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Space Perception, Verbal Behavior, Visual Perception
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