Verbal and Visuospatial Short-Term and Working Memory in Children: Are They Separable?
Open accessAbstract
This study explored the structure of verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory in children between ages 4 and 11 years. Multiple tasks measuring 4 different memory components were used to capture the cognitive processes underlying working memory. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the processing component of working memory tasks was supported by a common resource pool, while storage aspects depend on domain-specific verbal and visuospatial resources. This model is largely stable across this developmental period, although some evidence exists that the links between the domain-specific visuospatial construct and the domain-general processing construct were higher in the 4- to- 6-year age group. The data also suggest that all working memory components are in place by 4 years of age.
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The working memory system has a single central executive controller that operates on functionally and anatomically separate phonological and visuospatial short-term memory subsystems.
“These approaches are based on compelling evidence that the working memory system is characterized by a single central executive controller that operates on the functionally and anatomically separate phonological and visuospatial short-term memory subsystems (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996).”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
The paper’s introductory discussion of the Baddeley and Hitch model describes a central executive and separate verbal and visuospatial storage systems; its Discussion also reports evidence for domain-general working memory alongside domain-specific short-term storage. Our copy does not establish that the phonological and visuospatial subsystems are anatomically separate, so that part of the attributed claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSupport for the bifactor model includes replicated evidence that phonological and visuospatial storage systems are functionally and anatomically distinct and that a single domain-general central executive exists rather than separate central executives for each modality.
“Support for this model includes replicated evidence that the phonological and visuospatial storage systems are functionally and anatomically distinct, as well as replicated evidence supporting a single, domain-general central executive rather than separate central executive components for processing phonological and visuospatial information (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDevelopmentally, there is evidence that the different components of working memory follow different trajectories of maturation, and that this divergence of developmental pathways begins relatively early.
“Developmentally, there is evidence that the different components of working memory follow different trajectories of maturation, and that this divergence of developmental pathways begins relatively early (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology (2015) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
The Discussion reports one difference in developmental trajectory: verbal short-term memory leveled off sooner than the other components. But it says the components’ developmental functions from ages 4 to 11 were otherwise comparable; the Descriptive Statistics section places the leveling-off at ages 10–11, not relatively early. The stronger association between components in younger children does not establish early divergence in their maturation trajectories. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredWorking memory can be divided into verbal and visual-spatial systems, and these can be further subdivided into short-term storage/maintenance and updating/processing components.
“Working memory can be divided based on whether it refers to verbal or visual-spatial information, and these systems can be further subdivided into short-term storage/maintenance and updating/processing components (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inhibitory control and working memory in post-institutionalized children (2013) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
There is substantial evidence that visuo-spatial STM is not domain-specific.
“There is substantial evidence that it is not. Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Verbal and visuo-spatial memory spans are largely independent in children and adults.
“However, verbal and visuo-spatial memory span are largely independent in both children and adults (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Baddeley, Papagno, & Vallar, 1988; Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano, & Wilson, 1999).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
Visuo-spatial tasks rely more on general attentional resources than verbal tasks.
“Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
There is not a highly developed short-term memory system for storing visuo-spatial material.
“the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
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“In the digit span task, participants have to recall a series of spoken digits in the same (forward) or reverse (backward) condition order presented (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundRapport, M. D., Alderson, R. M., Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Bolden, J., & Sims, V. (2008) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9215-y · Cited by 331 · see citing works
“1996), neuroimaging (Fassbender and Schweitzer 2006), and factor analytic (Alloway et al. 2006) investigations support the distinct functioning of the two subsystems and their buffer-rehearsal components.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialWhat limits working memory capacity?
Oberauer, K., Farrell, S., Jarrold, C., & Lewandowsky, S. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000046 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
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“The nonsignificant moderation effect of CE demand on PH ES estimates likely reflects the greater role of CE processes on the VS system (Alloway et al., 2006), and is consistent with previous experimental findings in children (Rapport et al., 2009).”
ResultThe benefits of being bilingual: Working memory in bilingual Turkish–Dutch children
Blom, E., Küntay, A. C., Messer, M. H., Verhagen, J., & Leseman, P. P. M. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.06.007 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
A Controlled Trial of Working Memory Training for Children and Adolescents with ADHD
Beck, S. J., Hanson, C. A., Puffenberger, S. S., Benninger, K. L., & Benninger, W. B. (2010) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2010.517162 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
“The children were assessed using the Automated Working Memory Assessment (Alloway, 2007 ; Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006 ), which provides multiple measures of both verbal and visual-spatial storage and WM.”
Computer-assisted intervention for children with low numeracy skills
Räsänen, P., Salminen, J. B., Wilson, A. J., Pirjo Aunio, A., & Dehaene, S. (2009) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.09.003 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
Executive function in the first three years of life: Precursors, predictors and patterns
Hendry, A. J., Jones, E. J. H., & Charman, T. (2016) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.005 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Contributions of executive function and spatial skills to preschool mathematics achievement
Verdine, B. N., Irwin, C. M., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.02.012 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Takacs, Z. K., & Kassai, R. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000195 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
“Additionally, we decided to combine results over verbal and visuospatial working memory because evidence shows that working memory is a domain-general capacity (Alloway et al., 2006).”
MethodKassai, R., Futo, J., Demetrovics, Z., & Takacs, Z. K. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000180 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
“This is also in line with the evidence showing that working memory is a domain-general capacity (Alloway et al., 2006).”
MethodResultDiamond, A. D., & Ling, D. S. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199974467.003.0008 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Pearson, D., Deeprose, C., Wallace-Hadrill, S. M. A., Heyes, S. B., & Holmes, E. A. (2012) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.001 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Working memory deficit in children with mathematical difficulties: A general or specific deficit?
Andersson, U., & Lyxell, B. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2006.10.001 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Foundations of mathematics and literacy: The role of executive functioning components
Purpura, D. J., Schmitt, S. A., & Ganley, C. M. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.08.010 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Raiker, J. S., & Alderson, R. M. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9287-8 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
“…activity level was also moderately higher under the four phonological relative to visuospatial set size conditions, which may reflect differences in children's developing phonological and visuospatial abilities despite using identical cognitive loads across the two modalities (Alloway et al. 2006).”
BackgroundWorking Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties
Alloway, T. P. (2009) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“by averaging the standard scores of the individual tests associated with each memory component on the basis of the close relationship among these measures in typically-developing populations (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationComplex Sentence Comprehension and Working Memory in Children With Specific Language Impairment
Montgomery, J. W., & Evans, J. L. (2008) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0116 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Memory Maintenance and Inhibitory Control Differentiate from Early Childhood to Adolescence
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“The confirmatory factor analysis utilized in the current study ensured that the constructs of interest were error-free (see also Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole et al., 2004; Tideman & Gustafsson, 2004).”
Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E., & Raiker, J. S. (2010) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9357-6 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
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“…of good internal validity of the memory scores reported here (Table 2), as well as Wndings from a larger sample of typically developing children (nD707) establishing good construct validity between these measures (Alloway et al., 2006), subsequent analyses were based on composite memory scores.”
MethodResultSelf-citationA Hierarchical Model of Inhibitory Control
Tiego, J., Testa, R., Bellgrove, M. A., Pantelis, C., & Whittle, S. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01339 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
“…current study was based upon a synthesis of previous factor analytic studies, which have demonstrated patterns of intercorrelations in task performance largely consistent with the separate factors identified in the current model (Friedman and Miyake, 2004; Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialWorking memory training involves learning new skills
Gathercole, S. E., Dunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Norris, D. (2019) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.003 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
“Although tests of visuo-spatial serial recall such as Corsi blocks and spatial span are considered to tap STM, the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe relationship between working memory, IQ, and mathematical skills in children
Alloway, T., & Passolunghi, M. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.09.013 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking Memory Deficits and Social Problems in Children with ADHD
Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E., Raiker, J. S., & Alderson, R. M. (2011) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9492-8 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
“The ADHD and typically developing groups were combined to increase variability based on converging evidence that ADHD core symptoms (Frazier et al. 2007; Levy et al. 1997) and working memory abilities ( Alloway et al. 2006 ) are distributed normally in children and reflect dimensional constructs.”
BackgroundDunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Gathercole, S. E. (2013) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12068 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking memory and fluid intelligence in young children
Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., Conway, A. R. A., & Gathercole, S. E. (2010) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.07.003 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Self-citationAttentional and executive function behaviours in children with poor working memory
Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Kirkwood, H., Elliott, J. G., Holmes, J., & Hilton, K. A. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.10.003 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking Memory in Children With Developmental Disorders
Alloway, T. P., Rajendran, G., & Archibald, L. M. D. (2009) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219409335214 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking memory and language: Skill-specific or domain-general relations to mathematics?
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Computerized working memory training: Can it lead to gains in cognitive skills in students?
Alloway, T. P., Bibile, V., & Lau, G. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.10.023 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
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“84 (digit recall) (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006 ).”
The interrelationships of mathematical precursors in kindergarten
Cirino, P. T. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.11.004 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB): List Sorting Test to Measure Working Memory
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Time perception in children: A neurodevelopmental approach
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Evaluating the validity of the Automated Working Memory Assessment
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“This issue is of interest as research has confirmed that memory skills increase as a function of development in typically developing children (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Development of Executive Function
Müller, U., & Kerns, K. A. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy214 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
The relationship between visuospatial sketchpad capacity and children's mathematical skills
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“This is especially true for children, where performance on VSSP tasks correlates highly with performance on executive tasks (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006 ).”
BackgroundWorking memory abilities and children's performance in laboratory analogues of classroom activities
Gathercole, S. E., Durling, E., Evans, M. K., Jeffcock, S., & Stone, S. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1407 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
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“Test–retest reliability of the original test is .81 (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundArchibald, L. M. D., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2006.11.004 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Self-citationPlanning in young children: A review and synthesis
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The structure of working memory in young children and its relation to intelligence
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“That is, low-level cognitive skills such as processing speed directly support the process of working memory, attention, and executive functions in mathematics performance (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006; Noël et al., 2001; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
BackgroundVisuospatial working memory in specific language impairment: A meta-analysis
Vugs, B., Cuperus, J. M., Hendriks, M. P. H., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2013) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.05.014 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
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“It is acknowledged that some researchers have argued that forward and backward digit span tasks both tap short-term memory (Rosen & Engle, 1997), although the more common view is that the backward digit span task also relies on executive resources (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationWorking memory and social functioning in children
McQuade, J. D., Murray-Close, D. K., Shoulberg, E. K., & Hoza, B. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.03.002 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
The structure of working memory abilities across the adult life span.
Hale, S., Rose, N. S., Myerson, J., Strube, M., Sommers, M. S., Tye‐Murray, N., & Spehar, B. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0021483 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“This model represents the structure of the working memory system originally proposed by Baddeley (1986), as applied to individual differences by Alloway et al. (2006). In this model, all complex span tasks load on a domain-general executive factor, and verbal and spatial simple span tasks load on two domain-specific s…”
InfluentialCognitive Advantages of Bilingual Children in Different Sociolinguistic Contexts
Blom, E., Boerma, T., Bosma, E., Cornips, L. M. E. A., & Everaert, E. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00552 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“For working memory, both verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks were used (Alloway et al., 2006).”
van de Weijer‐Bergsma, E., Kroesbergen, E. H., & Luit, J. E. H. V. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0480-4 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“Alloway et al. (2006) believe their findings indicate that older children increasingly use verbal labels to recode even visual information, although the other way around could also be argued – that children visualize verbal information during working memory tasks.”
Florit, E., Roch, M., & Levorato, M. C. (2011) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/0163853x.2010.494244 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Cognitive correlates of vocabulary growth in English language learners
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Self-citationDoes working memory training promote the use of strategies on untrained working memory tasks?
Dunning, D. L., & Holmes, J. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0410-5 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
V. NIH TOOLBOX COGNITION BATTERY (CB): MEASURING WORKING MEMORY
Tulsky, D. S., Carlozzi, N. E., Chevalier, N., Espy, K. A., Beaumont, J. L., & Mungas, D. (2013) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12035 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
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“…et al. (2012) noted that the performance score on a single test probably fails to isolate the cognitive component of interest because it potentially reflects the contribution of other processes such as decision making and speed of motor responses (see also Kane et al., 2004; Alloway et al., 2006).”
The impact of engagement with social networking sites (SNSs) on cognitive skills
Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2012) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.04.015 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Self-citationListening comprehension in preschoolers: The role of memory
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“This result confirmed that the backward word span requires more processing resources and measures a more complex ability than forward word span (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA review of the day–night task: The Stroop paradigm and interference control in young children
Montgomery, D. E., & Koeltzow, T. E. (2010) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2010.07.001 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
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Training working memory in kindergarten children: Effects on working memory and early numeracy
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Hemispheric lateralization of verbal and spatial working memory during adolescence
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“The results of a large factor analytic study in primary-schoolaged children indicate that grouping the individual subtests into these latent variables is appropriate (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundHome literacy as a special language environment to prepare children for school
Leseman, P. P. M., Scheele, A. F., Mayo, A. Y., & Messer, M. H. (2007) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-007-0040-9 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
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Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory as Predictors of Children's Reading Ability
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“Depending on whether a WM model is domain-specific (e.g., Baddeley, 2000) or domain-general (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006), the role of the phonological system or the central executive system have been implicated for improving reading outcomes.”
BackgroundWorking memory performance and executive function behaviors in young children with SLI
Vugs, B., Hendriks, M. P. H., Cuperus, J. M., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2013) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.10.022 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
A working memory, not bilingual advantage, in controlled attention
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“Instead it is more consistent with the view of domain-specific constructs for verbal and visuospatial memory measures (Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering 2006 ; Miyake et al.”
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“is evident from as young as 4 years of age (Alloway et al., 2006).”
Working memory, learning, and academic achievement.
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“Previous research on Working Memory scores in development populations has reported that neither sex nor ethnicity leads to significant differences in test performance (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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Working memory profiles of children with dyslexia, developmental language disorder, or both
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Infancy predictors of preschool and post‐kindergarten executive function
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- Authors
- Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Alloway, Tracy Packiam
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-11-01
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1698-1716
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- OpenAlex
- W2130954429
- Cited by
- 938
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 29.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- working memory, short-term memory, verbal memory, visuospatial memory, children, memory structure, domain-general processing, cognitive development, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Space Perception, Verbal Behavior, Visual Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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