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Verbal and Visuospatial Short-Term and Working Memory in Children: Are They Separable?
Open accessAbstract
This study explored the structure of verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory in children between ages 4 and 11 years. Multiple tasks measuring 4 different memory components were used to capture the cognitive processes underlying working memory. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the processing component of working memory tasks was supported by a common resource pool, while storage aspects depend on domain-specific verbal and visuospatial resources. This model is largely stable across this developmental period, although some evidence exists that the links between the domain-specific visuospatial construct and the domain-general processing construct were higher in the 4- to- 6-year age group. The data also suggest that all working memory components are in place by 4 years of age.
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“These approaches are based on compelling evidence that the working memory system is characterized by a single central executive controller that operates on the functionally and anatomically separate phonological and visuospatial short-term memory subsystems (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996).”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Support for this model includes replicated evidence that the phonological and visuospatial storage systems are functionally and anatomically distinct, as well as replicated evidence supporting a single, domain-general central executive rather than separate central executive components for processing phonological and visuospatial information (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Developmentally, there is evidence that the different components of working memory follow different trajectories of maturation, and that this divergence of developmental pathways begins relatively early (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology (2015) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Working memory can be divided based on whether it refers to verbal or visual-spatial information, and these systems can be further subdivided into short-term storage/maintenance and updating/processing components (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inhibitory control and working memory in post-institutionalized children (2013) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“There is substantial evidence that it is not. Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“However, verbal and visuo-spatial memory span are largely independent in both children and adults (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Baddeley, Papagno, & Vallar, 1988; Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano, & Wilson, 1999).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
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BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-Regulation in Childhood: A Developmental Perspective
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“The test–retest reliability for the subtests is, respectively, 0.84, 0.76, 0.64, 0.81, 0.83, and 0.81 (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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“It has been proposed that these measures should not be considered as a unitary measure of verbal memory (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980), but that there is a difference between storage and processing (e.g. Alloway et al., 2006; Florit et al., 2009; Verhagen & Leseman, 2016).”
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“Alloway et al. (2006) demonstrated that younger children perceived much stronger relationships between the simple tasks of visuo-spatial information storage and tasks that required complex information processing.”
BackgroundDisentangling processing and storage accounts of working memory development in childhood
Superbia-Guimarães, L., & Cowan, N. (2023) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2023.101089 · Cited by 14
Kim, Y. J., Kim, H., Jung, Y. H., Park, Y. H., & Seo, S. W. (2021) · Yonsei Medical Journal · doi:10.3349/ymj.2021.62.8.717 · Cited by 14
Hill, L. J. B., Shire, K. A., Allen, R. J., Crossley, K. L., Wood, M. L., Mason, D., & Waterman, A. (2022) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16429.2 · Cited by 12
Developing Cross-Language Metrics for Reading Fluency Measurement
Abadzi, H. (2012) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/26819 · Cited by 12
Letter and Colour Matching Tasks: Parametric Measures of Developmental Working Memory Capacity
Powell, T. L., Arsalidou, M., Vogan, V. M., & Taylor, M. J. (2014) · Child Development Research · doi:10.1155/2014/961781 · Cited by 12
Beaver, K. M., DeLisi, M., Vaughn, M. G., & WRIGHT, J. P. (2010) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-010-0421-8 · Cited by 12
“Visuospatial skills and verbal skills have been shown to be highly intercorrelated, with some estimates revealing a correlation of about 0.85 (Alloway et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialRelating Individual Differences in Trait-Anxiety to Memory Functioning in Young Children
Cheie, L., & Visu‐Petra, L. (2012) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000079 · Cited by 12
Oudgenoeg‐Paz, O., Boom, J., Volman, M. J. M., & Leseman, P. P. M. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.02.005 · Cited by 12
“However, there is still much discussion regarding the age at which these differences emerge (Levine et al., 2005) and the nature of abilities affected by such differences (e.g., Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Robert & Savoiea, 2006, suggest lack of differences in visuospatial memory).”
van der Molen, M. J. (2010) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.07.019 · Cited by 12
Wannagat, W., Waizenegger, G., Hauf, J. E. K., & Nieding, G. (2016) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/0163853x.2016.1237246 · Cited by 14
Can working memory training improve preschoolers’ numerical abilities?
Honoré, N., & Noël, M. (2017) · Journal of Numerical Cognition · doi:10.5964/jnc.v3i2.54 · Cited by 12
“%) number pairs, F(1,45) = 4.06, p = .050 as it is typically expected for this type of task (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGray, S. I., Robertson, J., & Rajendran, G. (2015) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/2771839.2771846 · Cited by 12
“their working memory [1]), should be based around EF challenging exercises, and finally should be feasible for use within real world educational environments.”
BackgroundClair‐Thompson, H. S. (2013) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282913497344 · Cited by 12
Kokkalia, G., & Drigas, A. S. (2015) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v10i5.4359 · Cited by 14
Verbal and visual cognition: Individual differences in the lab, in the brain, and in the classroom
Alfred, K. L., & Kraemer, D. J. M. (2017) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2017.1401075 · Cited by 11
A novel working memory task for preschoolers: sensitivity to age differences from 3-5 years
Boudreau, A. M., Dempsey, E. E., Smith, I. M., & Garon, N. (2017) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2017.1333592 · Cited by 11
Cognitive predictors of language abilities in primary school children: A cascaded developmental view
Joana, A. C. H. A., Agirregoikoa, A., Barreto‐Zarza, F., & ARRANZ-FREIJO, E. B. (2022) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000921000908 · Cited by 11
Tsung, L., Zhang, L., Hau, K., & Leong, C. K. (2017) · The reading matrix · Cited by 11
Hill, L. J. B., Shire, K. A., Allen, R. J., Crossley, K. L., Wood, M. L., Mason, D., & Waterman, A. (2021) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.16429.1 · Cited by 11
“We expected positive correlations between each of the working memory measures, particularly for FDR and BDR, in line with the concept of shared processing components alongside domain-specific storage (Alloway et al., 2006).”
Köse, B., Demirel, A. K., & Çiprut, A. A. (2022) · International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology · doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2022.111307 · Cited by 11
Juric, L. C., Introzzi, I. M., & Burín, D. I. (2015) · Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento ( RACC ) · doi:10.32348/1852.4206.v7.n1.7678 · Cited by 11
Alloway, T. P., Seed, T., & Tewolde, F. (2015) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2015.09.009 · Cited by 13
Self-citationGarcia, A. M., Ros, R., Hart, K. C., & Graziano, P. A. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.09.020 · Cited by 13
van de Weijer‐Bergsma, E., Luit, J. E. H. V., & Moeller, K. (2022) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12562 · Cited by 15
“Despite the previously mentioned sex differences in verbal and visual- spatial abilities, however, it should be noted that sex differences in WM ability do not seem to be present yet in childhood (Alloway et al., 2006; Bull et al., 2008; Conklin et al., 2007; Gathercole et al., 2004).”
BackgroundThe developing impact of verbal labels on visual memories in children.
Overkott, C. S. R., Souza, A. S., & Morey, C. C. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001305 · Cited by 11
“Improvements across age have been observed in measurements of spatial memory (Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole et al., 2004; Morey et al., 2018), complex visual working memory span (Swanson, 2017), visual change detection (Cowan et al., 2010, 2011; Shimi et al., 2014; Shimi & Scerif, 2015), and…”
BackgroundMarinelli, C. V., Martelli, M., Praphamontripong, P., Zoccolotti, P., & Abadzi, H. (2013) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/16244 · Cited by 11
“According to (Alloway et al., 2006), WM increases more in the first 10 years than it does over the lifespan.”
BackgroundHayashi, Y., Kobayashi, T., & Toyoshige, T. (2015) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3177 · Cited by 14
Metadata
- Authors
- Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Alloway, Tracy Packiam
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-11-01
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1698-1716
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- OpenAlex
- W2130954429
- Cited by
- 938
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 29.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- working memory, short-term memory, verbal memory, visuospatial memory, children, memory structure, domain-general processing, cognitive development, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Space Perception, Verbal Behavior, Visual Perception
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