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Verbal and Visuospatial Short-Term and Working Memory in Children: Are They Separable?
Open accessAbstract
This study explored the structure of verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory in children between ages 4 and 11 years. Multiple tasks measuring 4 different memory components were used to capture the cognitive processes underlying working memory. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the processing component of working memory tasks was supported by a common resource pool, while storage aspects depend on domain-specific verbal and visuospatial resources. This model is largely stable across this developmental period, although some evidence exists that the links between the domain-specific visuospatial construct and the domain-general processing construct were higher in the 4- to- 6-year age group. The data also suggest that all working memory components are in place by 4 years of age.
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“These approaches are based on compelling evidence that the working memory system is characterized by a single central executive controller that operates on the functionally and anatomically separate phonological and visuospatial short-term memory subsystems (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996).”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Support for this model includes replicated evidence that the phonological and visuospatial storage systems are functionally and anatomically distinct, as well as replicated evidence supporting a single, domain-general central executive rather than separate central executive components for processing phonological and visuospatial information (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Developmentally, there is evidence that the different components of working memory follow different trajectories of maturation, and that this divergence of developmental pathways begins relatively early (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology (2015) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Working memory can be divided based on whether it refers to verbal or visual-spatial information, and these systems can be further subdivided into short-term storage/maintenance and updating/processing components (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inhibitory control and working memory in post-institutionalized children (2013) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“There is substantial evidence that it is not. Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“However, verbal and visuo-spatial memory span are largely independent in both children and adults (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Baddeley, Papagno, & Vallar, 1988; Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano, & Wilson, 1999).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
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BackgroundWorking memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach
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“The AWMA subtests were selected because of established reliability and validity for measuring working memory in typically developing children (Alloway et al, 2006).”
MethodEvidence for different components in children's visuospatial working memory
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“measures partially maintain a distinction based on domain-specific aspects, contrary to Baddeley’s original model (1986) in which executive processes are completely independent of the presentation format.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialA behavioral neuroenergetics theory of ADHD
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“2006), with an increase in performance between the ages 4 and 15 (Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004; Nichelli, Bulgheroni, & Riva, 2001; van Leeuwen, van den Berg, Hoekstra, & Boomsma, 2009).”
Working memory in Down syndrome: is there a dual task deficit?
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Influentialde Abreu, P. E., Abreu, N., Nikaedo, C. C., Puglisi, M. L., Neto, C. J. T. D. A., Miranda, M. ́. C., Befi‐Lopes, D. M., Bueno, O. F. A., & Martin, R. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00550 · Cited by 110
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“Contrary to that expectation, a large-scale study of more than 700 children by Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering (2006) revealed that memory performance increased linearly with age (from 4.5 to 10.5 years) for a set of 12 memory measures, including both verbal and spatial tasks.”
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“In line with this evidence, Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering (2006) showed that although all components of workingmemory are in place from the age of 4 years, the links between the visuo-spatial component and the central processing component is stronger in the 4–6 years phase than later.”
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How common are WM deficits in children with difficulties in reading and mathematics?
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Self-citationEffects of methylphenidate on working memory components: influence of measurement
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“Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering (2006) assessed verbal and visuospatial working memory and they reported similar age-related improvements between 4 and 11 years.”
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Explaining numeracy development in weak performing kindergartners
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“…recall loads onto the same factor as working memory measures such as counting span and listening span, whereas forward recall loads onto to a separable short-termmemory factor (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006; Alloway, Gathercole, Willis & Adams, 2004; Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge & Wearing, 2004).”
BackgroundInvestigating the Role of Verbal Working Memory in Young Children's Sentence Comprehension
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“The CNRep is a wellattested and well-validated measure of phonological STM (see Alloway et al., 2004; Gathercole et al., 2004). Aspects of the test depend on lexical knowledge, for instance, subparts of the test correspond to words or morphemes of English (e.g., pen, -ing), the items follow the prosodic contour of Eng…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialClark, C. A. C., & Woodward, L. J. (2010) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.508669 · Cited by 74
Cognitive development, reading and prosodic skills in children with cochlear implants
Lyxell, B., Wass, M., Sahlén, B. S., Samuelsson, C., Asker-Árnason, L., Ibertsson, T., Mäki‐Torkko, E., Larsby, B., & Hällgren, M. (2009) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00754.x · Cited by 71
Knowledge cannot explain the developmental growth of working memory capacity
Cowan, N., Ricker, T. J., Clark, K. M., Hinrichs, G. A., & Glass, B. A. (2014) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12197 · Cited by 71
Dunning, D. L., Westgate, B., & Adlam, A. (2016) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000285 · Cited by 74
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Language Training Leads to Global Cognitive Improvement in Older Adults: A Preliminary Study
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A comparison of working memory profiles in children with ADHD and DCD
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“This model also includes two domain-specific stores responsible for the temporary storage of verbal and visuospatial information and has been supported in studies of children ( Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006 ; Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley, 2003 ), adults ( Kane et al, 2004 ), and neuroimaging research (…”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationThe relationship among geometry, working memory, and intelligence in children
Giofrè, D., Mammarella, I. C., & Cornoldi, C. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.01.002 · Cited by 70
Metcalfe, A. W. S., Ashkenazi, S., Rosenberg‐Lee, M., & Menon, V. (2013) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2013.10.001 · Cited by 69
“Behavioral research has suggested that the visuospatial store is supported by the more general attentional resources of the CE component of WM (Alloway et al., 2006; Thompson et al., 2006).”
Pierce, L. J., Genesee, F. H., Delcenserie, A., & Morgan, G. (2017) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716417000236 · Cited by 73
Is Working Memory Training Effective? A Study in a School Setting
Rode, C., Robson, R., Purviance, A., Geary, D. C., & Mayr, U. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0104796 · Cited by 76
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“More recently, multiple factor analyses of performance by large cohorts of 4- to 11-yearolds indicated that individual differences in domain-general executive resources limit the processing component of working memory tasks across this developmental period (Alloway et al., 2006; Alloway, Gathercole, Willis, & Adams, 2…”
InfluentialKrogsrud, S. K., Fjell, A. M., Tamnes, C. K., Grydeland, H., Due‐Tønnessen, P., Bjørnerud, A., Sampaio‐Baptista, C., Andersson, J., Johansen‐Berg, H., & Walhovd, K. B. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195540 · Cited by 68
Kofler, M. J., Alderson, R. M., Raiker, J. S., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E., & Rapport, M. D. (2014) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000050 · Cited by 67
Stevenson, C., Bergwerff, C. E., Heiser, W., & Resing, W. (2014) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.1833 · Cited by 49
“The test-retest reliability of the Spatial Span subtest is 0.82 (Alloway et al., 2006).”
MethodInfluentialSex-dimorphic effects of prenatal treatment with dexamethasone
Wallensteen, L., Zimmermann, M., Thomsen Sandberg, M., Gezelius, A., Nordenström, A., Hirvikoski, T., & Lajic, S. (2016) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2016-1543 · Cited by 67
“Although working memory performance does not show a gender difference in typically developing children (40), in our study, the reduction in working memory performance was seen only in girls who were exposed to prenatal DEX despite not having CAH.”
BackgroundAge and Sex Differences in Verbal and Visuospatial Abilities
Barel, E., & Tzischinsky, O. (2018) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0238-x · Cited by 59
“** p < .01 *** p < .001 http://www.ac-psych.org2018 • volume 14(2) • 51-6156 with regard to sex differences in memory tasks in children, usually implying no sex differences (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006; Palejwala & Goldenring Fine, 2015).”
BackgroundThe differential role of verbal and visuospatial working memory in mathematics and reading
Giofrè, D., Donolato, E., & Mammarella, I. C. (2018) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2018.07.001 · Cited by 68
“This task can be considered as a complex working memory task in children (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Gathercole et al., 2006).”
van der Fels, I. M. J., Smith, J., de Bruijn, A. G. M., Bosker, R., Königs, M., Oosterlaan, J., Visscher, C., & Hartman, E. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224219 · Cited by 76
“An adapted version of a Visuospatial Memory task was used to assess visuospatial working memory [57,58].”
MethodVugs, B., Knoors, H. E. T., Cuperus, J. M., Hendriks, M. P. H., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2015) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1058348 · Cited by 66
“…of 6 and 15 years has shown a three-factor structure to characterize the cognitive processes underlying WM, whether or not this is also the case for children with SLI during later stages of development should be determined (Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHolmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., & Dunning, D. L. (2010) · Advances in Child Development and Behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374748-8.00001-9 · Cited by 66
Self-citationTraining Cognition in ADHD: Current Findings, Borrowed Concepts, and Future Directions
Rutledge, K. J., van den Bos, W., McClure, S. M., & Schweitzer, J. B. (2012) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0134-9 · Cited by 75
“The authors did use objective measures, such as the Automated Working Memory Assessment (AWMA) [69] [70] to assess verbal and visuospatial recall and verbal and visuospatial working memory processing, and the full (i.e., 4 subtest) Wechsler Abbreviated Scales of Intelligence (WASI) [71].”
MethodExploring individual and gender differences in early writing performance
Adams, A.-M., & Simmons, F. R. (2018) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-018-9859-0 · Cited by 84
“A female advantage in PSTM has also been reported (e.g. Kramer, Delis, Kaplan, O’Donnell, & Prifitera, 1997) although null effects exist too (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
Temporal Junctures in the Mind
Redshaw, J., & Suddendorf, T. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.10.009 · Cited by 64
RCT of Working Memory Training in ADHD: Long-Term Near-Transfer Effects
Hovik, K. T., Saunes, B.-K., Aarlien, A. K., & Egeland, J. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080561 · Cited by 74
“In the domain-specific model, performance on auditory and spatial WM tasks should not be highly associated [27].”
BackgroundSelf-regulation assessment among preschoolers with externalizing behavior problems.
Graziano, P. A., Slavec, J., Ros, R., Garb, L., Hart, K. C., & Garcia, A. M. (2015) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000113 · Cited by 69
Addressing working memory in children with autism through behavioral intervention
Baltruschat, L., Hasselhorn, M., Tarbox, J., Dixon, D. R., Najdowski, A. C., Mullins, R. D., & Gould, E. R. (2010) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.04.008 · Cited by 64
Spiess, M. A., Meier, B., & Roebers, C. M. (2016) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2016.02.003 · Cited by 70
A multilingual advantage in the components of working memory
Cockcroft, K., Wigdorowitz, M., & Liversage, L. (2017) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728917000475 · Cited by 69
Gokal, K., Munir, F., Ahmed, S. I., Kancherla, K., & Wallis, D. J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0206874 · Cited by 62
“One argument suggests that, unlike forwards recall, backwards recall involves executive control and may be considered as a complex span measure of working memory [80].”
BackgroundJones, J. S., Milton, F., Mostazir, M., & Adlam, A. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12870 · Cited by 78
“There is high agreement between simple and backward/complex span tasks in children ( r = 0.85 Alloway et al., 2006), suggesting that they measure the same un - derlying sub‐processes (see Unsworth & Engle, 2007).”
InfluentialWorking memory and cognitive styles in adolescents' attainment
Alloway, T. P., Banner, G., & Smith, P. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709910x494566 · Cited by 61
“Test reliability and validity are reported in Alloway et al. (2006, 2008), respectively.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMemory profiles in children with mild intellectual disabilities: Strengths and weaknesses
van der Molen, M. J., Luit, J. E. H. V., Jongmans, M. J., & van der Molen, M. W. (2009) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2009.04.005 · Cited by 75
Davidson, L. S., Geers, A. E., Hale, S., Sommers, M. S., Brenner, C. A., & Spehar, B. (2018) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000629 · Cited by 61
Measuring Working Memory Capacity With Greater Precision in the Lower Capacity Ranges
Nutley, S. B., Söderqvist, S., Bryde, S., Humphreys, K., & Klingberg, T. (2009) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640903325741 · Cited by 66
“This notion is especially supported in this young age group (4–6-year-olds) suggesting that STM tasks are as demanding as WM tasks (with processing) in terms of central executive involvement (Alloway et al., 2006).”
MethodInfluentialZélanti, P. S., & Droit‐Volet, S. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.01.003 · Cited by 60
Executive control and the experience of regret
Burns, P., Riggs, K. J., & Beck, S. R. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.10.003 · Cited by 58
Sowerby, P., Seal, S., & Tripp, G. (2011) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054710370674 · Cited by 59
The effect of ball compression on the match-play characteristics of elite junior tennis players
Kachel, K., Buszard, T., & Reid, M. M. (2014) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2014.942683 · Cited by 62
Contribution of strategy use to performance on complex and simple span tasks
Bailey, H. R., Dunlosky, J. T., & Kane, M. J. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0034-3 · Cited by 60
The contribution of working memory capacity to foreign language comprehension in children
Andersson, U. (2010) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211003762084 · Cited by 60
Jarrold, C., & Citroën, R. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028771 · Cited by 58
Maternal prenatal anxiety and child COMT genotype predict working memory and symptoms of ADHD
O’Donnell, K. J., Glover, V. A. S., Lahti, J. M. T., Lahti‐Pulkkinen, M., Edgar, R. D., Räikkönen, K., & O’Connor, T. G. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0177506 · Cited by 59
Traverso, L., Viterbori, P., & Usai, M. C. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02053 · Cited by 65
“This task is a traditional WM task (Carlson, 2005; Alloway et al., 2006).”
MethodNithart, C., Demont, É., Metz‐Lutz, M., Majerus, S., Poncelet, M., & Leybaert, J. (2010) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01427.x · Cited by 71
Working memory components and intelligence in children
Tillman, C. M., Nyberg, L., & Bohlin, G. (2007) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.10.001 · Cited by 57
Developmental Trends for Object and Spatial Working Memory: a Psychophysiological Analysis
Leijenhorst, L. V., Crone, E. A., & van der Molen, M. W. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01045.x · Cited by 57
Efficient Learning for the Poor: New Insights into Literacy Acquisition for Children
Abadzi, H. (2008) · International Review of Education · doi:10.1007/s11159-008-9102-3 · Cited by 57
“Its three components (central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad) may be immature or not communicate well at ages 4 or 5, but they mature by age 6 (Korkman et al. 2001; Gathercole et al. 2004; Alloway et al. 2006).”
BackgroundThe functional role of working memory in the (re-)planning and execution of grasping movements.
Spiegel, M. A., Koester, D., & Schack, T. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/a0031398 · Cited by 57
Working memory performance is reduced in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Browne, W. V., Hindmarsh, P. C., Pasterski, V., Hughes, I. A., Acerini, C. L., Spencer, D., Neufeld, S., & Hines, M. (2015) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.11.014 · Cited by 54
“Workingmemory performance does not show a sex difference in typically developing children (Alloway et al., 2006), and there was no sex difference in workingmemory performance in our study.”
Cognitive dimensions of learning in children with problems in attention, learning, and memory.
Holmes, J., Guy, J., Kievit, R., Bryant, A., Mareva, S., CALM Team, & Gathercole, S. E. (2020) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000644 · Cited by 67
Self-citationEffects of anxiety on memory storage and updating in young children
Visu‐Petra, L., Cheie, L., Bengà, O., & Alloway, T. P. (2010) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025410368945 · Cited by 58
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Alloway, Tracy Packiam
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-11-01
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1698-1716
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- OpenAlex
- W2130954429
- Cited by
- 938
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 29.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- working memory, short-term memory, verbal memory, visuospatial memory, children, memory structure, domain-general processing, cognitive development, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Space Perception, Verbal Behavior, Visual Perception
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