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Verbal and Visuospatial Short-Term and Working Memory in Children: Are They Separable?
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This study explored the structure of verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory in children between ages 4 and 11 years. Multiple tasks measuring 4 different memory components were used to capture the cognitive processes underlying working memory. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the processing component of working memory tasks was supported by a common resource pool, while storage aspects depend on domain-specific verbal and visuospatial resources. This model is largely stable across this developmental period, although some evidence exists that the links between the domain-specific visuospatial construct and the domain-general processing construct were higher in the 4- to- 6-year age group. The data also suggest that all working memory components are in place by 4 years of age.
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“These approaches are based on compelling evidence that the working memory system is characterized by a single central executive controller that operates on the functionally and anatomically separate phonological and visuospatial short-term memory subsystems (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996).”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Support for this model includes replicated evidence that the phonological and visuospatial storage systems are functionally and anatomically distinct, as well as replicated evidence supporting a single, domain-general central executive rather than separate central executive components for processing phonological and visuospatial information (Baddeley, 2007; Alloway et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996”
From Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach (2020) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Developmentally, there is evidence that the different components of working memory follow different trajectories of maturation, and that this divergence of developmental pathways begins relatively early (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology (2015) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Working memory can be divided based on whether it refers to verbal or visual-spatial information, and these systems can be further subdivided into short-term storage/maintenance and updating/processing components (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006).”
From Inhibitory control and working memory in post-institutionalized children (2013) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“There is substantial evidence that it is not. Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“However, verbal and visuo-spatial memory span are largely independent in both children and adults (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Baddeley, Papagno, & Vallar, 1988; Della Sala, Gray, Baddeley, Allamano, & Wilson, 1999).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006
In the citing paper
“Across many studies employing a wide range of paradigms, it has been shown that visuo-spatial tasks show a far greater reliance on general attentional resources than their verbal equivalents (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Morey & Miron, 2016; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“the conclusion of the task analysis was that there is not a highly developed STM system for storing visuo-spatial material (Alloway et al., 2006; Kane et al., 2004; Pearson et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2006).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Alloway et al., 2006
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BackgroundSelf-citationDoes Working Memory Training Transfer? A Meta-Analysis Including Training Conditions as Moderators
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“Additionally, we decided to combine results over verbal and visuospatial working memory because evidence shows that working memory is a domain-general capacity (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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“This issue is of interest as research has confirmed that memory skills increase as a function of development in typically developing children (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006; Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge, & Wearing, 2004).”
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“This is especially true for children, where performance on VSSP tasks correlates highly with performance on executive tasks (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006 ).”
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“Test–retest reliability of the original test is .81 (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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“That is, low-level cognitive skills such as processing speed directly support the process of working memory, attention, and executive functions in mathematics performance (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006; Noël et al., 2001; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
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“It is acknowledged that some researchers have argued that forward and backward digit span tasks both tap short-term memory (Rosen & Engle, 1997), although the more common view is that the backward digit span task also relies on executive resources (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationWorking memory and social functioning in children
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“This model represents the structure of the working memory system originally proposed by Baddeley (1986), as applied to individual differences by Alloway et al. (2006). In this model, all complex span tasks load on a domain-general executive factor, and verbal and spatial simple span tasks load on two domain-specific s…”
InfluentialCognitive Advantages of Bilingual Children in Different Sociolinguistic Contexts
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“For working memory, both verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks were used (Alloway et al., 2006).”
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“Alloway et al. (2006) believe their findings indicate that older children increasingly use verbal labels to recode even visual information, although the other way around could also be argued – that children visualize verbal information during working memory tasks.”
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Cognitive correlates of vocabulary growth in English language learners
Farnia, F., & Geva, E. (2011) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716411000038 · Cited by 138
Alloway, T. P. (2010) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01281.x · Cited by 150
Self-citationDoes working memory training promote the use of strategies on untrained working memory tasks?
Dunning, D. L., & Holmes, J. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0410-5 · Cited by 129
V. NIH TOOLBOX COGNITION BATTERY (CB): MEASURING WORKING MEMORY
Tulsky, D. S., Carlozzi, N. E., Chevalier, N., Espy, K. A., Beaumont, J. L., & Mungas, D. (2013) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12035 · Cited by 146
Mohamad, N., Hoare, D. J., & Hall, D. A. (2015) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2015.10.001 · Cited by 135
“…et al. (2012) noted that the performance score on a single test probably fails to isolate the cognitive component of interest because it potentially reflects the contribution of other processes such as decision making and speed of motor responses (see also Kane et al., 2004; Alloway et al., 2006).”
The impact of engagement with social networking sites (SNSs) on cognitive skills
Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2012) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.04.015 · Cited by 137
Self-citationListening comprehension in preschoolers: The role of memory
Florit, E., Roch, M., Altoè, G., & Levorato, M. C. (2009) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151008x397189 · Cited by 155
“This result confirmed that the backward word span requires more processing resources and measures a more complex ability than forward word span (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA review of the day–night task: The Stroop paradigm and interference control in young children
Montgomery, D. E., & Koeltzow, T. E. (2010) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2010.07.001 · Cited by 131
Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Fuhs, M. W. (2015) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000021 · Cited by 157
Training working memory in kindergarten children: Effects on working memory and early numeracy
Kroesbergen, E. H., Noordende, J. E. V. '., & Kolkman, M. E. (2012) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.736483 · Cited by 131
Hemispheric lateralization of verbal and spatial working memory during adolescence
Nagel, B. J., Herting, M. M., Maxwell, E. C., Bruno, R. L., & Fair, D. A. (2013) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2013.02.007 · Cited by 137
Simmons, F. R., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.08.011 · Cited by 128
“The results of a large factor analytic study in primary-schoolaged children indicate that grouping the individual subtests into these latent variables is appropriate (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundHome literacy as a special language environment to prepare children for school
Leseman, P. P. M., Scheele, A. F., Mayo, A. Y., & Messer, M. H. (2007) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-007-0040-9 · Cited by 127
The development of prospective memory in children: An executive framework
Mahy, C. E. V., Moses, L. J., & Kliegel, M. (2014) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2014.08.001 · Cited by 128
Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory as Predictors of Children's Reading Ability
Pham, A. V., & Hasson, R. (2014) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acu024 · Cited by 150
“Depending on whether a WM model is domain-specific (e.g., Baddeley, 2000) or domain-general (e.g., Alloway et al., 2006), the role of the phonological system or the central executive system have been implicated for improving reading outcomes.”
BackgroundWorking memory performance and executive function behaviors in young children with SLI
Vugs, B., Hendriks, M. P. H., Cuperus, J. M., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2013) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.10.022 · Cited by 138
A working memory, not bilingual advantage, in controlled attention
Namazi, M., & Thordardottir, E. T. (2010) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2010.488288 · Cited by 134
“Instead it is more consistent with the view of domain-specific constructs for verbal and visuospatial memory measures (Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering 2006 ; Miyake et al.”
BackgroundAlderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Hudec, K. L., Sarver, D. E., & Kofler, M. J. (2010) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9387-0 · Cited by 117
Viterbori, P., Usai, M. C., Traverso, L., & Franchis, V. D. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.014 · Cited by 131
Florit, E., Roch, M., & Levorato, M. C. (2013) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-013-9464-1 · Cited by 116
The working memory rating scale: A classroom-based behavioral assessment of working memory
Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Kirkwood, H., & Elliott, J. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2008.10.003 · Cited by 115
Self-citationRhodes, S. M., Park, J., Seth, S., & Coghill, D. R. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02436.x · Cited by 113
“is evident from as young as 4 years of age (Alloway et al., 2006).”
Working memory, learning, and academic achievement.
Swanson, H. L., & Alloway, T. P. (2012) · APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories, constructs, and critical issues. · doi:10.1037/13273-012 · Cited by 118
Self-citationNath, S., & Szűcs, D. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.01.006 · Cited by 113
Leong, C. K., Tse, S. K., Loh, E. K. Y., & Hau, K. (2008) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.135 · Cited by 112
Working memory across the lifespan: A cross-sectional approach
Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2012.748027 · Cited by 133
“Previous research on Working Memory scores in development populations has reported that neither sex nor ethnicity leads to significant differences in test performance (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodResultSelf-citationAlloway, T. P., & Temple, K. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1284 · Cited by 109
Self-citationElevated airborne manganese and low executive function in school-aged children in Brazil
de Carvalho, C. F., Menezes‐Filho, J. A., de Matos, V. P., Bessa, J. R., Coelho-Santos, J., Viana, G. F. D. S., Argollo, N., & Abreu, N. (2013) · NeuroToxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2013.11.006 · Cited by 111
“This latter process is known as working memory, which involves the ability to retain and manipulate information for a brief period (Alloway et al., 2006).”
BackgroundThe case against specialized visual-spatial short-term memory
Morey, C. C. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000155 · Cited by 103
Working memory profiles of children with dyslexia, developmental language disorder, or both
Gray, S., Fox, A. B., Green†, S., Alt, M., Hogan, T. P., Petscher, Y., & Cowan, N. (2019) · Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2019_jslhr-l-18-0148 · Cited by 127
Infancy predictors of preschool and post‐kindergarten executive function
Kraybill, J. H., & Bell, M. A. (2012) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21057 · Cited by 122
Metadata
- Authors
- Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Alloway, Tracy Packiam
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-11-01
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1698-1716
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- OpenAlex
- W2130954429
- Cited by
- 938
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 29.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- working memory, short-term memory, verbal memory, visuospatial memory, children, memory structure, domain-general processing, cognitive development, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Space Perception, Verbal Behavior, Visual Perception
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