Multitasking on a Single Device: Arousal and the Frequency, Anticipation, and Prediction of Switching Between Media Content on a Computer: Multitasking and Arousal
Abstract
This study measured arousal responses to multitasking by recording switches between content on personal computers over a day. Results showed that switches occurred every 19 seconds, more often than has been reported in previous research. Arousal was highest at the point of a switch with declines in skin conductance afterward. Switches were also preceded by a 12-second period of increasing skin conductance. 2 new methods were used, one an original application that recorded screen shots, and another that measured changes in skin conductance during the day using a wrist sensor. Results are discussed in light of increasing use of single devices displaying multiple types of content, rather than multitasking that occurs when attention is divided between content on multiple devices.
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Interruption science established three-minute working spheres and content switching about every 19 s with 75% of segments under a minute.
“Interruption science established the fragmentation our compiler measures, three-minute working spheres [23] and content switching about every 19 s with 75% of segments under a minute [24]”
From Activity Frames: Deterministic Screen-Activity Compilation for Agent Memory and Replay (2026) · cites this paper as [24]
The active-duration distribution is consistent with interruption science measurements: three-minute working spheres and 75% of laptop content segments under one minute.
“Read this way, the distribution is consistent with what interruption science has measured with dedicated instrumentation: three-minute working spheres [23] and 75% of laptop content segments under one minute [24].”
From Activity Frames: Deterministic Screen-Activity Compilation for Agent Memory and Replay (2026) · cites this paper as [24]
Previous work on media multitasking and task switching has largely examined impacts on cognitive or attentional capacity.
“Previous work on media multitasking (changing across devices) and task switching (changing channels or task within the same device) has been explored quite extensively in the literature, but largely in respect of how this impacts on cognitive or attentional capacity [42].”
From The Conceptual and Methodological Mayhem of “Screen Time” (2020) · cites this paper as [42]
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“Because attentional capacities are limited (Kahneman, 1973), rapid attentional switches, which have been shown to increase arousal levels (Yeykelis et al., 2014), are necessary.”
BackgroundKarlesky, M., & Isbister, K. (2016) · Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/2971485.2971557 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Investigating respondent multitasking in web surveys using paradata
Sendelbah, A., Vehovar, V., Slavec, A., & Petrovčič, A. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.10.028 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Some researchers also categorise activities into dichotomous categories such as productive/distractive (Kraushaar & Novak, 2010), work/non-work (Lottridge et al., 2012) or work/entertainment (Yeykelis et al., 2014).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Digital Device Usage on Student Academic Performance: A Case Study
Limniou, M. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11030121 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“This finding might be linked to multitasking theories, as the number of applications might disrupt student attention, forcing them to suspend their primary tasks following when involved in other activities [42].”
BackgroundScreen Addiction and Media Multitasking among American and Taiwanese Users
Lin, T. T. C., Kononova, A. G., & Chiang, Y.-H. (2019) · Journal of Computer Information Systems · doi:10.1080/08874417.2018.1556133 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Gender differences in multitasking experience and performance
Lui, K. F. H., Yip, K. H., & Wong, A. C. ‐. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820960707 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Other studies used computer software to log switches between content on computers to characterise multitasking behaviour (e.g., Judd & Kennedy, 2011; Spink et al., 2006; Yeykelis et al., 2014).”
MethodNetiquette as Digital Social Norms
Heitmayer, M., & Schimmelpfennig, R. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2188534 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Beyond exhaustion and stress, multi-tasking in digitally mediated contexts has also been shown to reduce cognitive performance (Jeong & Hwang, 2016; Uncapher et al., 2016) as well as the overall ability to focus on tasks (Baumgartner & Sumter, 2017; Ophir et al., 2009; Yeykelis et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMedia multitasking, mind-wandering, and distractibility: A large-scale study
Wiradhany, W., van Vugt, M. K., & Nieuwenstein, M. R. (2019) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-019-01842-0 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Hoşgör, H., Coşkun, F., Çalışkan, F., & Hoşgör, D. G. (2020) · Perspectives in psychiatric care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12653 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
von Sikorski, C., & Hänelt, M. (2016) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1077699016628822 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Investigating the Prevalence and Predictors of Media Multitasking across Countries
Voorveld, H. A. M., Segijn, C. M., Ketelaar, P. E., & Smit, E. G. (2014) · International journal of communication · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Screenertia: Understanding “Stickiness” of Media Through Temporal Changes in Screen Use
Brinberg, M., Ram, N., Wang, J., Sundar, S. S., Cummings, J. J., Yeykelis, L., & Reeves, B. B. (2022) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/00936502211062778 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“There is evidence that changes in attention are related to higher arousal and better memory for information (e.g., Lang, 2000; Yeykelis et al., 2014), changes in looking at or away from a screen can influence comprehension of narratives (e.g., Calvert et al., 1982), differences in device—whether it…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationDo Multimedia Matter? Cognitive and Affective Effects of Embedded Multimedia Journalism
Pincus, H., Wojcieszak, M., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2016) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1077699016654679 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“More germane to our focus on multimedia content, presenting several integrated modalities (video, text, etc.), switching between content on single devices displaying multiple types of content is very frequent and generates high arousal (Yeykelis, Cummings, & Reeves, 2014).”
BackgroundMedia multitasking: How visual cues affect switching behavior
Brasel, S. A., & Gips, J. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.042 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Segijn, C. M., Xiong, S., & Duff, B. R. L. (2018) · Communication Methods and Measures · doi:10.1080/19312458.2018.1555797 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…Computer tasks, split-screen; Chinchanachokchai et al., 2015; van Cauwenberge et al., 2015 Experiments Print screen of media tasks; Garaus et al., (2017) Observation using software; Yeykelis et al. (2014) Structured observations Lab: Brasel & Gips, 2011 House: Rosen et al., 2013 Figure 1.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMihailidis, P. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315526058 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Who Multitasks on Smartphones? Smartphone Multitaskers' Motivations and Personality Traits
Lim, S., & Shim, H. (2016) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2015.0225 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Baumgartner, S. E., van der Schuur, W. A., Lemmens, J. S., & Poel, F. T. (2017) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/hcre.12111 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Can't See the Forest for the Trees? The Effect of Media Multitasking on Cognitive Processing Style
Kazakova, S., Cauberghe, V., Pandelaere, M., & Pelsmacker, P. D. (2015) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2015.1006789 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Alhabash, S., McAlister, A. R., Kim, W., Lou, C., Cunningham, C., Quilliam, E. T., & Richards, J. I. (2016) · Journal of Interactive Advertising · doi:10.1080/15252019.2016.1160330 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
How media multitasking reduces advertising irritation: The moderating role of the Facebook wall
Beuckels, E., Cauberghe, V., & Hudders, L. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.069 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Baumgartner, S. E., & Sumter, S. R. (2017) · Journal of Children and Media · doi:10.1080/17482798.2017.1304971 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“According to Yeykelis et al. (2014) computer-based multitasking may be internally or externally driven.”
The situation in media and communication research
Schnauber-Stockmann, A., Bayer, J., Harari, G. M., & Karnowski, V. (2024) · Communication Theory · doi:10.1093/ct/qtae021 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Investigating the relationship between media multitasking and processes involved in task-switching.
Alzahabi, R., Becker, M. W., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0000412 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Mobile recovery? The impact of smartphone use on recovery experiences in waiting situations
Rieger, D., Hefner, D., & Vorderer, P. (2017) · Mobile Media & Communication · doi:10.1177/2050157917691556 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Exploitation–Exploration Model of Media Multitasking
Wiradhany, W., Baumgartner, S. E., & de Bruin, A. B. H. (2021) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000303 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Yeykelis et al. ( 2014 ) showed that arousal level, as measured by skin conductance, increased prior to switches from one computer tab to another and the arousal level quickly dissipated following the switches.”
Kononova, A. G., Joo, E., & Yuan, S. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.09.011 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“rather than perform tasks simultaneously (Yeykelis et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialGilbert, A., Baumgartner, S. E., & Reinecke, L. (2023) · Mobile Media & Communication · doi:10.1177/20501579221138017 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…computer use, logging and physiological data demonstrate that multitasking is associated with decreases in heart rate variability and increases in arousal, suggesting that multitasking is related to increased physiological stress (Mark et al., 2014; Wetherell & Carter, 2014; Yeykelis et al., 2014).”
BackgroundHow advertising in offline media drives reach of and engagement with brands on Facebook
Voorveld, H. A. M., Araujo, T., Bernritter, S. F., Rietberg, E., & Vliegenthart, R. (2018) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2018.1454703 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“As advertising on Facebook and engagement with brands take place on the same device and even the same platform, this might induce less switching costs for consumers (Yeykelis, Cummings, and Reeves 2014) than switching between different devices or media.”
Pittman, M., & Steiner, E. (2021) · Convergence The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies · doi:10.1177/1354856521999183 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Distortions in time perceptions during task switching
Xu, S., & David, P. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.032 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Yeykelis, L., Cummings, J. J., & Reeves, B. B. (2017) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2017.1406805 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“One field study (Yeykelis, Cummings, & Reeves, 2014) showed that individuals switched frequently between content on a laptop computer, with the median length of a content segment only 19 sec.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationLiu, Y., Sun, X., Zhang, P., Han, P., Shao, H., Duan, X., & Jiang, J. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14755 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“A previous study showed that Gen Z students switch between programs on their screens at an average of 19 s, and >75% of students have their computer windows open for less than a minute [37].”
Electrodermal Activity ( EDA )
Bailey, R. L. (2017) · The International Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods · doi:10.1002/9781118901731.iecrm0079 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Conceptualizing and Examining Change in Communication Research
Brinberg, M., & Lydon‐Staley, D. M. (2023) · Communication Methods and Measures · doi:10.1080/19312458.2023.2167197 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…wearable devices and unobtrusive observations of mobile device use over time (e.g., changes in skin conductance preceding a switch in media content, Yeykelis et al., 2014), multiple surveys over short time scales, such as experience sampling methods or daily diaries (e.g., the consequences and…”
BackgroundExploring the variability of media multitasking choice behaviour using a network approach
Wiradhany, W., & Baumgartner, S. E. (2019) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2019.1589575 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Szumowska, E., Popławska, A., Kuś, J., Osowiecka, M., & Kramarczyk, J. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.043 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“It might occur on various devices (e.g., using the Internet on laptop and listening to radio) or on a single device, for example, on a computer screen with multiple browser tabs open (Kononova & Chiang, 2015; Lau, 2017; Yeykelis, Cummings, & Reeves, 2014).”
Text Extraction from Smartphone Screenshots to Archive in situ Media Behavior
Chiatti, A., Yang, X., Brinberg, M., Cho, M.-J., Gagneja, A., Ram, N., Reeves, B. B., & Giles, C. L. (2017) · International Conference on Knowledge Capture · doi:10.1145/3148011.3154468 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The resulting volume, variety, and velocity of images obtained from each individual, ensures sufficient granularity for time-series and mathematical data modeling when assessing long term effects of short term behaviors [4, 13].”
BackgroundSelf-citationAntecedents of smartphone multitasking: roles of demographics, personalities and motivations
Chen, X., Wang, Y., Tao, D., Jiang, L., & Li, S. (2021) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-09-2019-0388 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Forecasting errors in student media multitasking during homework completion
Calderwood, C., Green, J. D., Joy-Gaba, J. A., & Moloney, J. M. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.10.021 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Readability Research: An Interdisciplinary Approach
Beier, S., Berlow, S. M., Boucaud, E., Bylinskii, Z., Cai, T., Cohn, J., Crowley, K., Day, S., Dingler, T., Dobres, J., et al. (2022) · Foundations and Trends® in Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1561/1100000089 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Hwang, Y., & Jeong, S. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.12.008 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
"It's Kind of Boring Looking at Just the Face"
Suh, M., Bentley, F. R., & Lottridge, D. M. (2018) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3274436 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“One may interrupt oneself to escape a task that is overly stressful or one that is under-stimulating [87].”
BackgroundMethodExploring the Typology and Impacts of Audience Gratifications Gained from TV–Smartphone Multitasking
Su, L., & Chen, S. (2019) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2019.1683312 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Psychological and physiological effects of applying self-control to the mobile phone
Markowitz, D. M., Hancock, J. T., Bailenson, J. N., & Reeves, B. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224464 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“, multitasking [38,40,41]), we use this theory to motivate our test of how people will respond psychologically and physiologically to three common experiences with mobile media.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationKononova, A. G., Joshi, P., & Cotten, S. R. (2019) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igz029 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Text extraction and retrieval from smartphone screenshots
Chiatti, A., Cho, M.-J., Gagneja, A., Yang, X., Brinberg, M., Roehrick, K., Choudhury, S. R., Ram, N., Reeves, B. B., & Giles, C. L. (2018) · ACM Symposium on Applied Computing · doi:10.1145/3167132.3167236 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“The interval between screenshots, and resulting volume, variety, and velocity of images, ensures sufficient granularity for time-series and mathematical modeling of these data [14], [1].”
BackgroundSelf-citationTrait motivational reactivity as a predictor of online dating app behavior
Cummings, J. J., & Mays, K. K. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106775 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationSumter, S. R., Baumgartner, S. E., & Wiradhany, W. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2350663 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“The literature on media multitasking has consistently demonstrated that switching among tasks results in increased arousal which is known to hinder cognitive and physiological downregulation making it more di ffi cult to fall asleep (e.g. Yeykelis, Cummings, and Reeves 2014).”
Johnson, K. A., & John, B. S. (2019) · Journalism Practice · doi:10.1080/17512786.2019.1637272 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Since then, the use of such shortcuts has only become intensified; for example, a study of college students’ use of their laptops revealed that only 25% of students kept an online screen open for more than a minute (Yeykelis, Cummings, and Reeves 2014).”
BackgroundIndividualized Modeling to Distinguish Between High and Low Arousal States Using Physiological Data
Osotsi, A., Oravecz, Z., Li, Q., Smyth, J. M., & Brick, T. R. (2020) · Journal of Healthcare Informatics Research · doi:10.1007/s41666-019-00064-1 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…activity (EDA) also called Skin Conductance Response (SCR) is recorded at 4 Hz using a pair of stainless-steel electrodes mounted on the underside of the band, which reports electrical properties of the skin that have been linked to a variety of measures related to arousal and stress (e.g., [46]).”
BackgroundRethinking perception and cognition in the digital environment
Kirjakovski, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Cognition · doi:10.3389/fcogn.2023.1266404 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Heitmayer, M. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100244 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Multi-device work tends to go along with task-switching between different threads of activity that participants pick up, leave, and return to intermittently (Yeykelis et al., 2014, 2018).”
BackgroundRobinson, H. R., & Kalafatis, S. P. (2017) · Journal of Marketing Management · doi:10.1080/0267257x.2017.1383297 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Attention levels between media are found to vary during individuals’ multiple media use, advocating foreground and background media (Brasel & Gips, 2011; Pilotta & Shultz, 2005); where rates of switching between media are fast and frequent (Brasel & Gips, 2011; Yeykelis et al., 2014).”
BackgroundFreedom makes you lose control
Beuckels, E., Kazakova, S., Cauberghe, V., Hudders, L., & Pelsmacker, P. D. (2019) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-09-2017-0588 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Smartphones within Psychological Science
Ellis, D. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108671408 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Fisher, J. T., Hopp, F. R., Chen, Y., & Weber, R. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107829 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Kononova, A. G., McAlister, A. R., & Oh, H. J. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.042 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Limniou, M., Duret, D., & Hands, C. (2020) · Higher Education Pedagogies · doi:10.1080/23752696.2020.1797522 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“The limited capacity model is influenced by the environmental stimulus which activate two motivational (appetitive and aversive) systems and the cognitive process of encoding, storing and retrieving information which is influenced by attention and media exposure (Yeykelis et al., 2014).”
BackgroundTheorizing inconsistent media selection in the digital environment
Gui, M., Shanahan, J. E., & Tsay‐Vogel, M. (2021) · The Information Society · doi:10.1080/01972243.2021.1922565 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“In the digital media environment, task-switching is much easier and more frequent, and also prompted by notifications and other push technologies (Yeykelis, Cummings, and Reeves 2014).”
BackgroundPark, S., Xu, X., Rourke, B., & Bellur, S. S. (2019) · Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media · doi:10.1080/08838151.2019.1622340 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
- Authors
- Yeykelis, L., Cummings, J. J., & Reeves, B.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Communication
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2014-01-07
- Volume
- 64
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 167-192
- ISSN
- 0021-9916 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2134540188
- Cited by
- 216
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 34.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Communication (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › Media and Digital Communication
- Keywords
- multitasking, media switching, arousal, skin conductance, personal computers, attention, wrist-worn sensors, anticipation
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