The role of individual learner differences in explicit language instruction

Probably not a substantial claim.

ATI effects are to be expected.

“More recently, scholars have likewise pointed out that ATI effects are to be expected (Grañena, 2013c;Kormos, 2013;Wen et al., 2017).”

• cites Grañena, 2013cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kormos, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wen et al., 2017 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Participants had generally quite positive views of the instruction they experienced, with a mean of 3.6 on a 5-point scale.

“participants had generally quite positive views of the instruction they experienced, with a mean of 3.6 on a 5-point scale.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Perceptions of the instructional materials explained a small amount of variance on Posttest 1, but this variable lost its significance for Posttest 2.

“Perceptions of the instructional materials explained a small amount of variance on Posttest 1, but this variable lost its significance for Posttest 2.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Age correlated with level of education, but a partial correlation controlling for education confirmed that the role of age was not an artefact: age was still associated with posttest scores even when level of education was factored out (r_p = 0.338, p < .001).

“Age correlated with level of education, but a partial correlation controlling for education confirmed that the role of age was not an artefact: Age was still associated with posttest scores even when level of education was factored out (r p = 0.338, p < .001).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The sample as a whole shows various associations between the LLAMA subtests and the O-Span task, though not with the SRT task.

“the sample as a whole shows various associations between the LLAMA subtests and the O-Span task, though not with the SRT task.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Missing data in the SRT task is missing at random.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The written inductive group performed best and the mixed deductive group worst, with the exception of the SRT task, where all groups performed very similarly.

“Scrutiny of the tables suggests that the written inductive group performed best and the mixed deductive group worst-with the exception of the SRT task, where all groups performed very similarly.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Across the sample as a whole, three consistent statistical predictors of L2 outcome in terms of posttest scores were identified, with the phonetic and language-analytic ability factor emerging as the strongest predictor, followed by level of multilingualism and chronological age.

“Across the sample as a whole, we identified three consistent statistical predictors of L2 outcome in terms of posttest scores, with the phonetic and language-analytic ability factor emerging as the strongest predictor, followed by level of multilingualism and chronological age.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' self-reported multilingualism scores accurately reflect their language proficiency.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Posttests 1 and 2 correlate, indicating consistent performance across the outcome measures for the two targeted features.

“Posttests 1 and 2 correlate, indicating consistent performance across the outcome measures for the two targeted features.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The descriptive statistics show a spread of scores on all variables, indicating individual learner differences across the board.

“The descriptive statistics show a spread of scores on all variables, indicating individual learner differences across the board.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

LLAMA D was the most challenging subtest with a mean facility value of just 25%.

“LLAMA D was the most challenging subtest with a mean facility value of just 25%.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Correlations with posttest scores of some or all the LLAMA subtests D, E, and F are in evidence in the inductive groups (written, auditory, and mixed), but not in the mixed deductive group, where none of the cognitive ability measures are significantly associated with posttest performance.

“Correlations with posttest scores of some or all the LLAMA subtests D, E, and F are in evidence in the inductive groups (written, auditory, and mixed), but not in the mixed deductive group, where none of the cognitive ability measures are significantly associated with posttest performance”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The reliability of LLAMA D (alpha = 0.63) is sufficient for the analyses in which it is used.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The final sample was distributed somewhat unevenly across the experimental conditions: auditory inductive, n = 33; written inductive, n = 45; mixed inductive, n = 31; mixed deductive, n = 27.

“The final sample was distributed somewhat unevenly across the experimental conditions: auditory inductive, n = 33; written inductive, n = 45; mixed inductive, n = 31; mixed deductive, n = 27.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The final sample comprised 136 participants who completed the exit questionnaire and thereby indicated their intention to finish the study.

“The final sample comprised 136 participants who completed the exit questionnaire and thereby indicated their intention to finish the study.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The vocabulary test is a valid measure of readiness for the language lessons.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Mean performance on the O-Span task is strong, whereas the mean LLAMA scores are all below 50%.

“It is worth noting that mean performance on the O-Span task is strong, whereas the mean LLAMA scores are all below 50%.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

LLAMA D, LLAMA E, and LLAMA F consistently correlate with posttest performance.

“LLAMA D, LLAMA E, and LLAMA F consistently correlate with posttest performance.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The reliability of LLAMA D (alpha = 0.63) is sufficient for the analyses in which it is used.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

In the pilot study, the technical side of the study worked as intended, and the various tests exhibited good or very good reliability.

“The technical side of the study worked as intended, and the various tests exhibited good or very good reliability.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Perceptions of the instructional materials and level of education correlate weakly with Posttest 1, though the relationships lose their significance for Posttest 2.

“Perceptions of the instructional materials and level of education likewise correlate weakly with Posttest 1, though the relationships lose their significance for Posttest 2.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The memory factor and implicit sequence learning ability did not predict learners' posttest performance.

“The memory factor and implicit sequence learning ability did not predict learners' posttest performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Our learner profiles included an attitudinal component and an experiential component.

“our learner profiles included an attitudinal component (perceptions of the instructional materials) and an experiential component (level of multilingualism).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Two outliers who scored 50% accuracy or below were removed from analyses involving the O-Span task.

“Two outliers who scored 50% accuracy or below were removed from analyses involving the O-Span task.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The two outliers removed from the O-Span analyses are not representative of the population.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Explicit abilities facilitate learning under explicit conditions, but implicit abilities do not.

“In other words, explicit abilities facilitate learning under explicit conditions, but implicit abilities do not.”

• cites Grañena & Yilmaz, 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

ATI studies that aim for ecological validity with their instructional treatments and also measure a full range of aptitude components are rare, and none of them are recent.

“To conclude, ATI studies that aim for ecological validity with their instructional treatments and also measure a full range of aptitude components are rare, and, importantly, none of them are recent.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Explicit aptitude may be relevant in both explicit and implicit learning conditions, and may be more important in naturalistic learning conditions where no scaffolding is available.

“While surprising at first glance, this finding chimes with earlier theoretical arguments that (explicit) aptitude may be relevant in both explicit and implicit learning conditions (Robinson, 2005;Skehan, 2002), and that (explicit) aptitude may in fact be more important in naturalistic (i.e., implicit, or at least incidental) learning conditions where no scaffolding is available (Abrahamsson & Hylt”

• cites Robinson, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Skehan, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

An instructional approach that capitalises on learners' strengths leads to more successful outcomes in terms of both learner satisfaction and L2 attainment.

“In summary, the findings from Wesche's (1981) study suggest that an instructional approach that capitalises on learners' strengths leads to more successful outcomes in terms of both learner satisfaction and L2 attainment.”

• cites Wesche, 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The relationship between WM and proficiency becomes stronger as L2 proficiency increases.

“On the one hand, the relationship between WM and proficiency was found to become stronger as L2 proficiency increased (Linck & Weiss, 2011), while on the other hand, the explanatory power of WM decreased as L2 proficiency increased (Serafini & Sanz, 2016).”

• cites Linck & Weiss, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

Ranta (2002) identified four learner types: strong across all measures, weak across all measures, analytically oriented, and memory oriented.

“A subsequent cluster analysis led to the identification of four learner types: Learners in Cluster 1 exhibited strong performance on all L2 measures as well as the metalinguistic task, while learners in Cluster 4 exhibited weak performance across all these measures.”

• cites Ranta, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Two main learner profiles identified by MLAT research are analytically oriented and memory-oriented learners.

“Research in the 1980s that made use of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT; Carroll & Sapon, 1959) identified two main profiles: analytically oriented and memory-oriented learners (Skehan, 1986;Wesche, 1981).”

• cites Skehan, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wesche, 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Explicit and implicit aptitudes are distinct from each other and from WM.

“While both explicit and implicit aptitudes are componential constructs, they are distinct not only from each other (see Li, 2022, for an up-to-date overview) but also from WM.”

• cites Li, 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

It is possible to compensate for learners' weaknesses, as suggested by the finding that deductive instruction can minimise the impact of differences in cognitive abilities.

“At the same time, and just as importantly, it also seems to be possible to compensate for learners' weaknesses, as suggested by the finding that deductive instruction can minimise the impact of differences in cognitive abilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Significant divergence from a normal distribution was observed in a number of instances, and analyses involving these variables employed nonparametric statistical tests.

“Significant divergence from a normal distribution was observed in a number of instances, and analyses involving these variables employed nonparametric statistical tests”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

High-aptitude participants may have been able to bring to bear their superior language-analytic abilities in the untimed written test format, but could not draw on their explicit knowledge and engage in monitoring to the same extent in the paced auditory test format.

“By way of explanation, she argued that high-aptitude participants may have been able to bring to bear their superior language-analytic abilities in the untimed written test format, but could not draw on their explicit knowledge and engage in monitoring to the same extent in the paced auditory test format (Grañena, 2013c).”

• cites Grañena, 2013cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Instructional approaches that play to learners' strengths can lead to greater learner satisfaction and better learning outcomes.

“Existing research has further shown that instructional approaches that play to learners' strengths can lead to greater learner satisfaction and better learning outcomes.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Data analysis for the O-Span task is based on a partial-credit scoring system that resulted in higher reliability than dichotomous scoring.

“Data analysis is based on a partial-credit scoring system that resulted in higher reliability than dichotomous scoring.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Unsuccessful learners are above all constrained by weaknesses in phonetic coding ability.

“He further proposed that unsuccessful learners were above all constrained by weaknesses in phonetic coding ability.”

• cites Skehan, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The explanatory power of WM decreases as L2 proficiency increases.

“On the one hand, the relationship between WM and proficiency was found to become stronger as L2 proficiency increased (Linck & Weiss, 2011), while on the other hand, the explanatory power of WM decreased as L2 proficiency increased (Serafini & Sanz, 2016).”

• cites Serafini & Sanz, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Strong language-analytic ability may play a role up to a certain level of L2 proficiency, but ultimately excellent memory ability is the most crucial aptitude component.

“Several years later, Skehan (1998) conjectured that strong language-analytic ability may play a role up to a certain level of L2 proficiency, but that, ultimately, excellent memory ability allowing for the retention of large quantities of linguistic material was the most crucial aptitude component.”

• cites Skehan, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

There have been no attempts yet to investigate the interaction of different treatment conditions with the full range of aptitude components as conceptualised in current theorising: explicit aptitude, implicit aptitude, and WM.

“In other words, there have been no attempts yet to investigate the interaction of different treatment conditions with the full range of aptitude components as conceptualised in current theorising: explicit aptitude, implicit aptitude, and WM-a gap our study set out to fill.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Another potentially complementary reason is that the two features differed in quantitative terms (three vs. six inflections), whereas a qualitative difference in complexity may be required for learning difficulty to increase measurably.

“Another, potentially complementary reason is the fact that the two features differed in quantitative terms (three vs. six inflections), whereas a qualitative difference in complexity may be required for learning difficulty to increase measurably.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Out of the 176 participants who began the study, 7 had to be excluded because they failed a vocabulary test three times; the other 33 decided not to continue to the exit questionnaire.

“Out of the 176 participants who began the study, 7 had to be excluded because they failed a vocabulary test three times; the other 33 decided not to continue to the exit questionnaire.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The vocabulary test is a valid measure of readiness for the language lessons.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

A larger study with sufficient statistical power to conduct inferential analyses may yield an ATI effect.

“suggesting that a larger study with sufficient statistical power to conduct inferential analyses may yield an ATI effect.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Specific cognitive capacities map onto information-processing stages in L2 learning.

“Second, attempts have been made to map aptitude components onto information-processing stages that characterise the L2 learning process (Skehan, 2002”

• cites Skehan, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Skehan, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim.

Patterns of abilities need to be matched to learning tasks.

“First, the proposal of a small number of aptitude complexes that differentially relate to learning outcomes under different processing conditions suggests that patterns of abilities need to be matched to learning tasks (Robinson, 2001”

• cites Robinson, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Robinson, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

In general, reliability of above 0.4 is deemed acceptable for measures of implicit processes.

“In general, reliability of above 0.4 is deemed acceptable for measures of implicit processes (Grañena, 2020).”

• cites Grañena, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

ATIs are of theoretical import because they can give insight into the processes that link learner-internal and learner-external variables and contribute to understanding how language learning operates.

“ATIs are of theoretical import, since they can give insight into the processes that link learner-internal and learner-external variables and can thus contribute to our understanding of how language learning operates (DeKeyser, 2012).”

• cites DeKeyser, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

One possible reason for the similar posttest performance is that the ordering of features scaffolded learners successfully from the less complex to the more complex paradigm, enabling them to handle the increasing challenge.

“One possible reason for this is that the ordering of features was such that learners were scaffolded successfully from the less complex to the more complex paradigm and were therefore able to handle the increasing challenge.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The tasks used to measure implicit aptitude in L2 research to date are not necessarily highly reliable, often do not correlate with each other, and vary in their predictive power.

“At the same time, the tasks that have been used to measure implicit aptitude in L2 research to date are not necessarily highly reliable, often do not correlate with each other, and vary in their predictive power (Perruchet, 2021), so in this sense, caution is in order.”

• cites Perruchet, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Mean accuracy on the mathematical problems preceding letter recall in the O-Span task was high at 93%, indicating that participants engaged with the task as intended.

“Mean accuracy was high at 93%, indicating that participants engaged with the task as intended.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Specific instructional approaches cannot only play to learners' strengths, but can also be used to compensate for weaknesses.

“In sum, Erlam's (2005) results suggest that specific instructional approaches cannot only play to learners' strengths, but can also be used to compensate for weaknesses.”

• cites Erlam, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Understanding ATIs can help optimise L2 instruction because ATI research can show whether and why a particular teaching approach works better with some learners than others.

“Theoretical considerations are complemented by practical relevance: Understanding ATIs can help optimise L2 instruction because ATI research can show whether and why a particular teaching approach works better with some learners than others.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Over and above cognitive abilities, attitudes can play a role in determining L2 success.

“over and above cognitive abilities, attitudes can play a role in determining L2 success (Carroll, 1981)”

• cites Carroll, 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The data set is not complete, so participant numbers vary between treatment groups and between individual analyses.

“This data set is not complete, however, so participant numbers vary between treatment groups and between individual analyses, as reported below.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Some of the morphemes in the genitive of negation are identical with the three morphemes featuring in nominative adjective-noun gender agreement, while others are different.

“Moreover, some of these morphemes are identical with the three morphemes featuring in nominative adjective-noun gender agreement, while others are different (see Table 1).”

Probably not a substantial claim.

High-aptitude participants showed improved performance in the written test modality.

“Using auditory and written grammaticality judgment tasks, Grañena (2013c) reported that high-aptitude participants showed improved performance in the written test modality.”

• cites Grañena, 2013cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

WM should be considered a component of aptitude because it is predictive of L2 attainment.

“The argument that WM should be considered a component of aptitude because it is predictive of L2 attainment goes back to the 1990s (McLaughlin, 1995;Miyake & Friedman, 1998) and has since gained considerable support (Juffs & Harrington, 2011;Linck et al., 2014;Wen et al., 2017).”

• cites McLaughlin, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miyake & Friedman, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Juffs & Harrington, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

Implicit aptitude does not appear to facilitate learning under implicit conditions, but this result cannot be regarded as conclusive.

“Implicit aptitude does not appear to facilitate learning under implicit conditions, but given the limited evidence available to date, this result cannot be regarded as conclusive, so the role of implicit aptitude in different instructional contexts requires further scrutiny.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Adjective-noun gender agreement requires the distinction of three morphemes in the nominative case, whereas the genitive of negation requires the distinction of six morphemes, three in the accusative case in positive sentences and three in the genitive case in negative sentences.

“Adjective-noun gender agreement requires the distinction of three morphemes in the nominative case, whereas the genitive of negation requires the distinction of six morphemes, three in the accusative case in positive sentences and three in the genitive case in negative sentences.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Learning difficulty of a linguistic feature depends on a number of variables, including frequency in the input, perceptual salience, communicative redundancy, the relative transparency of a form-meaning mapping, and formal complexity.

“Learning difficulty of a linguistic feature depends on a number of variables, including frequency in the input, perceptual salience, communicative redundancy, the relative transparency of a form-meaning mapping, and formal complexity (DeKeyser, 2005).”

• cites DeKeyser, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

An ability describes a relation between characteristics of individuals and characteristics of the task they perform with varying degrees of success.

“Carroll (1990), for instance, argued that an ability describes a relation between characteristics of individuals and characteristics of the task they perform with varying degrees of success, and he encouraged researchers to examine variations in the difficulty of cognitive tasks as a function of their characteristics.”

• cites Carroll, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

ATI research, with its simultaneous focus on learner-internal individual difference variables, learner-external variables, and L2 outcomes, is widely acknowledged as important.

“The importance of ATI research with its simultaneous focus on learner-internal individual difference variables, learner-external variables in the sense of learning setting and instructional approach, and L2 outcomes is widely acknowledged (DeKeyser, 2012”

• cites DeKeyser, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kempe & Brooks, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kidd et al., 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Input modality has hitherto been neglected in the field.

“In addition to the inductive-deductive contrast in explicit instruction, we emphasise the importance of input modality, which has hitherto been neglected in the field.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Aptitude is an important predictor of L2 outcomes, but its precise role depends on learners' level of L2 proficiency, with greater effects expected at lower or beginner levels.

“Research to date has shown that while aptitude is an important predictor of L2 outcomes, its precise role depends on learners' level of L2 proficiency, with greater effects expected at lower or beginner levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

A possible explanation for the role of age is that older participants put in more effort and engaged with the instructional materials with greater seriousness than younger participants.

“A possible explanation for the role of age is that older participants put in more effort and engaged with the instructional materials with greater seriousness than younger participants.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Inductive instruction benefited learners with strong language-analytic ability, structured input-based instruction benefited learners with strong language-analytic ability and WM, and deductive instruction was of equal benefit to all learners.

“Results show that inductive instruction benefited learners with strong language-analytic ability, structured input-based instruction benefited learners with strong language-analytic ability and WM, and deductive instruction was of equal benefit to all learners.”

• cites Erlam, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The reported pattern of results on implicit aptitude is based on just two studies, so caution is in order.

“Having said this, the reported pattern of results is based on just two studies, so caution is in order.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Partial-credit scoring of LLAMA E and LLAMA F resulted in higher reliability than dichotomous scoring, so the analyses reported below are based on partial-credit scores.

“As this resulted in higher reliability than dichotomous scoring, the analyses reported below are based on partial-credit scores.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

LLAMA D was based on version 2 and resulted in alpha = 0.63.

“LLAMA D was based on version 2 and resulted in alpha = 0.63.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The reliability of LLAMA D (alpha = 0.63) is sufficient for the analyses in which it is used.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Participants who had 50% or more missing data were excluded from analyses involving the SRT task.

“Participants who had 50% or more missing data were excluded from analyses involving the SRT task.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Missing data in the SRT task is missing at random.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Another possible reason for the absence of predictive power of the SRT task is the difference in stimulus domain between the SRT task and the language learning task.

“Another possible reason may be found in the difference in stimulus domain between the SRT task, which relies on nonverbal visual stimuli that are devoid of meaning, and the language learning task participants engaged in during the lessons.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The new version 3 of LLAMA is much improved in terms of performance, reliability, and validity.

“the new version 3 (https://llamatests.org) is much improved in terms of performance, reliability, and validity (see Rogers et al., 2023)”

• cites Rogers et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Test-retest reliability has been assessed on the basis of a subsample of 94 participants who were tested and then retested after a 4-week interval.

“Test-retest reliability has been assessed on the basis of a subsample of 94 participants who were tested and then retested after a 4-week interval.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

As a single input modality, the written condition brought individual differences to the fore, but it was more forgiving than the auditory condition because it allowed several learner types to succeed.

“as a single input modality, the written condition brought individual differences to the fore, but it was more forgiving than the auditory condition because it allowed several learner types to succeed, since strengths in both language-analytic and memory ability could be exploited (see also Grañena, 2013c).”

• cites Grañena, 2013cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

We did not include any delayed posttests.

“we did not include any delayed posttests due to the practical challenge of having to persuade participants to return yet again after completing lengthy sessions spread over several days.”

It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

The present results bear out the expectations that language-analytic ability is important for grammar learning and phonetic coding ability plays a role at the earliest stages.

“Our results bear out these expectations: The participants were complete beginners, and the learning targets were two regular morphological features.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

We are a step closer to potentially providing instructional conditions that can maximise L2 learning success.

“we are a step closer to potentially providing instructional conditions that can maximise L2 learning success.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The LLAMA suite as a whole yielded intraclass correlations of 0.64 (agreement) and 0.76 (consistency), which is deemed fair to good.

“The LLAMA suite as a whole yielded intraclass correlations of 0.64 (agreement) and 0.76 (consistency), which is deemed fair to good (Rogers et al., 2024).”

• cites Rogers et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The advantage only takes effect if learners are strong in terms of language analysis and/or memory.

“the advantage only takes effect if learners are strong in terms of language analysis and/or memory.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Memory is considered most important at more advanced stages when knowledge is proceduralised and automaticity of retrieval that manifests itself in fluent performance is achieved.

“memory is considered most important at more advanced stages when knowledge is proceduralised and automaticity of retrieval that manifests itself in fluent performance is achieved (Skehan, 2016)”

• cites Skehan, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The LLAMA suite is the only viable aptitude measure that is available to L2 researchers working with international multilingual samples.

“the LLAMA suite is the only viable aptitude measure that is available to L2 researchers working with international multilingual samples (Roehr-Brackin, 2021)”

• cites Roehr-Brackin, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

In the written condition, higher levels of cognitive ability were needed as well, but these abilities were not (or were less) dependent on phonetic coding ability.

“in the written condition, higher levels of cognitive ability were needed as well, but these abilities were not (or were less) dependent on phonetic coding ability.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The predictive power of aptitude is well evidenced and has been observed above all in explicit instructional conditions.

“The predictive power of aptitude is well evidenced (Li, 2016) and has been observed above all in explicit instructional conditions (Grañena & Yilmaz, 2018;Skehan, 2015)”

• cites Li, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Grañena & Yilmaz, 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Skehan, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Implicit aptitude may not come into play until learners reach more advanced stages.

“implicit aptitude may not come into play until learners reach more advanced stages (Li, 2022)”

• cites Li, 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Our participant sample was not as large as we would have wished, resulting in uneven numbers across experimental conditions and too few cases in some cells.

“our participant sample was not as large as we would have wished, resulting in uneven numbers across experimental conditions and too few cases in some of the cells in the analysis of ATI effects.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The ATI effects uncovered point to the importance of input modality and potentially learners' perceptual abilities/preferences.

“the ATI effects we uncovered based on post hoc pairwise comparisons between clusters in the different experimental groups point to the importance of input modality and thus, potentially, also towards learners' perceptual abilities and/or preferences.”