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Foreign language aptitude theory: Yesterday, today and tomorrow
Open accessAbstract
Foreign language (FL) aptitude generally refers to a specific talent for learning a foreign or second language (L2). After experiencing a long period of marginalized interest, FL aptitude research in recent years has witnessed renewed enthusiasm across the disciplines of educational psychology, second language acquisition (SLA) and cognitive neuroscience. This paper sets out to offer a historical and an updated account of this recent progress in FL aptitude theory development and research. As its subtitle indicates, the paper centres on three major issues: following the introduction and clarification of basic concepts, Section 1 traces the early conceptions of FL aptitude dominated by John Carroll's pioneering work. Section 2 summarizes and examines more recent theoretical perspectives and FL aptitude models proposed by researchers from multiple disciplines that have significantly broadened the conventional research traditions associated with Carroll's original conception. Based on the research synthesis of current FL aptitude models, Section 3 suggests the directions FL aptitude theory and research might take in coming years. We conclude that a working memory perspective on FL aptitude presents one promising avenue for advance, as does the development of new aptitude tests to predict speed of automatization, implicit learning and greater control over an emerging language system. In addition, it is argued that issues of domain-specificity versus domain-generality for aptitude tests may lead to aptitude theory and research becoming more central in applied linguistics.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review traces foreign language aptitude theory from Carroll’s four-factor model through contemporary cognitive, SLA, and neuroscience perspectives, arguing that aptitude research has broadened from prediction toward explanation. It concludes that working memory is a promising core component for future aptitude theory and testing, alongside new tests for automatization, implicit learning, and control over an emerging L2 system.
Key findings
- Carroll’s four-factor model—phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and associative memory—remains the most influential portrayal of FL aptitude, though later models add components such as L1/L2 phonology/orthography, working memory, and aptitude complexes.
- Meta-analytic evidence cited shows positive aptitude–L2 outcome links: Li (2015) reported r = 0.34 between MLAT scores and ultimate L2 learning outcomes across 34 studies (N = 3239), and another Li (2015) synthesis of 33 studies (3,106 learners) reported r = .31, 95% CI = .25–.36; Linck et al. (2014) reported a working memory–L2 population effect size of 0.255 across 79 samples (748 effect sizes, 3,707 participants).
- Sparks et al. (2011) found four L2 aptitude components—L1/L2 phonology/orthography, L1/L2 language analysis, IQ/memory, and self-perceptions of L2 motivation/anxiety—explained 76% of variance in ultimate oral and written L2 proficiency.
- In Hi-LAB validation work, the Paired Associates test, Letter Span of phonological short-term memory, and Implicit Learning test best distinguished “successful” from “very successful” learners; executive working memory, processing speed, and auditory tests did not distinguish the groups. CANAL-F did not significantly outperform the MLAT in predictive validity.
Methods
- Design: historical and integrative review of FL aptitude theory and testing, organized as “Yesterday, today and tomorrow.”
- Data/sample: no new primary data; the paper synthesizes prior theoretical models, empirical studies, and meta-analyses, including Carroll’s MLAT tradition, LCDH, CANAL-F, Skehan’s Macro-SLA model, Robinson’s Aptitude Complexes, Hi-LAB, and cognitive neuroscience findings.
- Main analysis: narrative conceptual synthesis and model comparison, with future directions proposed around working memory, micro aptitude research, knowledge vs. control, and domain-specificity/generality and explicit–implicit contrasts.
Limitations
- The paper states that FL aptitude research has suffered marginalized interest and relatively limited empirical work; it also notes that Skehan’s aptitude model remains speculative and needs empirical support, that Robinson’s framework has little data testing its hypotheses, and that Hi-LAB has only limited publicly available empirical evidence.
- The paper states that CANAL-F validation results did not significantly outperform the MLAT in predictive validity.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search strategy, inclusion criteria, or formal quality appraisal, and its recommendations for working memory and future aptitude tests are programmatic rather than empirically settled.
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- Premisecitation§ 1.2 Clarification of basic concepts: Aptitude vs intelligence
Sasaki's first-order factor analysis confirmed that aptitude and intelligence scores were separate.
“It was found that first-order factor analysis of the aptitude and intelligence scores confirmed they were separate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sasaki 1996
- Interpretationcitation§ Associative memory
The concept of FL aptitude has stood the test of time and remained a valid concept despite changes in classroom practice from structure-based methods to communicative language teaching.
“although there have been some criticisms and skepticism, the concept of FL aptitude has stood the test of time and remained a valid concept despite the big changes that have happened in classroom practice from structure-based methods, such as audiolingualism, to the more current communicative language teaching (Erlam 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Erlam 2005 source
- Premisecitation§ Associative memory
Li's meta-analysis of 34 FL aptitude studies (N = 3239) found a statistically significantly positive correlation (r = 0.34) between MLAT scores and ultimate L2 learning outcomes among children and adults.
“a recent meta-analysis conducted by Li (2015) of 34 sampled FL aptitude studies (N = 3239) in the past 50 years has produced a statistically significantly positive correlation (r = 0.34) between MLAT scores and ultimate L2 learning outcomes among children and adults.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ 2. Yesterday: Early conceptions of and research on FL aptitude
Carroll conceptualized FL aptitude as comprising four distinct and measurable abilities: phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and associative memory.
“Carroll (1962Carroll ( , 1981Carroll ( , 1990Carroll ( , 1993) ) conceptualized the FL aptitude construct as comprising four distinct and measurable abilities: PHONETIC CODING ABILITY, GRAMMATICAL SENSITIVITY, INDUCTIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING ABILITY and ASSOCIATIVE MEMORY”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Carroll 1962
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Carroll 1981
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Carroll 1993 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ Associative memory
Knowledge about FL aptitude has not developed very much since it started some 50 years ago.
“As a result of this marginalized interest, knowledge about FL aptitude has not developed very much since it started some 50 years ago.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Premisecitation§ Associative memory
Among all individual difference factors except age, only L2 motivation can perform on a par with FL aptitude in predicting ultimate learning outcomes.
“among all ID factors (except for the indisputable age factor; see Skehan 1989Skehan , 1998;;Dörnyei 2005;Granena & Long 2013 for detailed reviews) that are purported to influence L2 learning, only L2 motivation can manage to perform on a par with FL aptitude in predicting ultimate learning outcomes”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation§ 1.2 Clarification of basic concepts: Aptitude vs intelligence
Sasaki's second-order factor analysis corroborated a common factor, analytic ability, which accounted for variance in some aptitude variables and in IQ.
“However, a second-order factor analysis corroborated the existence of a common factor, namely analytic ability, which accounted for the variance in some of the aptitude variables as well as that in the intelligence quotients (IQ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sasaki 1996
- Premisecitation§ 1.2 Clarification of basic concepts: Aptitude vs intelligence
Other aptitude factors in Carroll's original model, such as phonetic coding ability and memory, did not correlate with intelligence.
“Other aptitude factors in Carroll's original model (1962Carroll's original model ( , 1981)), such as phonetic coding ability and memory, did not correlate with intelligence.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Carroll 1962
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Carroll 1981
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Associative memory
FL aptitude theory has lagged far behind L2 motivation theory.
“Viewed this way, it seems fair to claim that FL aptitude theory has lagged far behind L2 motivation theory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes framework
Robinson's conception of FL aptitude is similar to Skehan's model in that it also seeks to explain observable individual differences in the final learning outcome among L2 learners.
“Robinson's conception of FL aptitude is similar to Skehan's model in that it also seeks to provide an explanation that aims to account for observable IDs in the final learning outcome among L2 learners.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4.1.1 Rationale and empirical evidence
Li (2015) found generally larger effect sizes for aptitude among younger L2 learners (e.g. high school students) as opposed to older counterparts (e.g. university students).
“a particularly noticeable finding is the generally larger effect sizes for aptitude among younger L2 learners (e.g.high school students) as opposed to older counterparts (e.g.university students).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ 4.1.1 Rationale and empirical evidence
Both the phonological and the executive aspects of working memory tend to exercise consistent and distinctive influences on various aspects of L2 acquisition and processing.
“numerous empirical studies in cognitive psychology and SLA have demonstrated that both the phonological and the executive aspects of working memory tend to exercise consistent and distinctive influences on various aspects of L2 acquisition and processing”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitude
Bilingual learners' later skills in L2 reading can be predicted by the activation level of the fusiform-caudate circuit in the participants' left hemisphere over a one-year span.
“the researchers demonstrated through fMRI that bilingual learners' later skills in L2 reading can be predicted by the activation level of the fusiform-caudate circuit in the participants' left hemisphere over a one-year span.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tan et al. 2011 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitude
The brain anatomy feature of phonological working memory in the left auditory cortex can be a reliable predictor of phonological aptitude to a certain extent.
“these strands of studies suggest that the brain anatomy feature of phonological working memory in the left auditory cortex can be a reliable predictor of phonological aptitude to a certain extent”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Baddeley, Gathercole & Papagno 1998 source
- Interpretationreasoning§ 3.7 Summary of current theoretical perspectives on FL aptitude
An in-depth analysis of contemporary aptitude models has given further support to a significant role for working memory in FL aptitude, either implicitly or directly.
“Most important of all, an in-depth analysis of these more contemporary aptitude models has given further support to a significant role for working memory in FL aptitude, either implicitly or directly.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4.1.1 Rationale and empirical evidence
The body of evidence suggesting an important role for working memory within FL aptitude is now considerable.
“Taken as a whole, then, it is clear that the body of evidence suggesting an important role for working memory within FL aptitude is now considerable.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes framework
An aptitude for focus on form is influenced by capacity to notice and by memory for contingent speech.
“an aptitude for focus on form is influenced by (a) capacity to notice and (b) by memory for contingent speech”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ellis & Shintani 2013 source
- Premisecitation§ 3.2
Validation results of the CANAL-F test did not significantly outperform the MLAT in predictive validity.
“validation results of the CANAL-F test, as obtained in their empirical studies, did not significantly outperform the MLAT in predictive validity (Sternberg & Grigorenko 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sternberg & Grigorenko 2002 source
- Interpretationcitation§ 4.1.2 Implications for aptitude theory construction and test development
Incorporating working memory into aptitude is compatible with the developmental process in constructing an aptitude theory, as outlined by Snow.
“we believe that incorporating working memory into aptitude is compatible with the developmental process in constructing an aptitude theory, as outlined by Snow.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Snow 1992 source
- Premisecitation§ 3.5 Cognitive science and the High Level Language Aptitude Battery (Hi-LAB) model
The most effective Hi-LAB sub-tests in distinguishing between successful and very successful learners were the Paired Associates test, the Letter Span of phonological short-term memory test (with Non-word Span marginal), and the Implicit Learning test.
“The most effective sub-tests in this regard were the Paired Associates test, the Letter Span of phonological shortterm memory test, (the Non-word Span was marginal) and the Implicit Learning test.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Linck et al. 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ 3.5 Cognitive science and the High Level Language Aptitude Battery (Hi-LAB) model
Linck et al. (2013) used Hi-LAB to try to separate a group of successful from a group of very successful learners.
“Linck et al. (2013) do report an important study where they used Hi-LAB to try to separate a group of 'successful' from a group of 'very successful' learners.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Linck et al. 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ 4.1.1 Rationale and empirical evidence
Li (2015) meta-analysis found an overall positive link between aptitude and L2 learning outcomes (r = .31, 95% CI = .25-.36).
“In addition to corroborating the overall positive link between aptitude and L2 learning outcomes (r = .31,95%, CI = .25-.36)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ 4.1.1 Rationale and empirical evidence
The central executive is more important in selective and resource-demanding language processes as well as the real-time performance areas of L2 comprehension, L2 interaction and L2 speech production.
“The central executive, in contrast, has been demonstrated to be more important in selective and resource-demanding language processes as well as the real-time performance areas of L2 comprehension, L2 interaction and L2 speech production”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Miyake & Friedman 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Wen, Mota & McNeill 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Skehan 2015b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 4.1.2 Implications for aptitude theory construction and test development
What unites these three accounts of aptitude is that they see working memory as fundamental to the capacity to learn L2s.
“So what unites these three accounts of aptitude, each with a different starting point, is that they see working memory as fundamental to the capacity to learn L2s.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitude
Findings from brain-based neurological studies have increasingly become an important source of evidence that complements the earlier dependence on behavioural research conventions.
“Findings from these brain-based neurological studies have increasingly become an important source of evidence that complements the earlier dependence on behavioural research conventions (Schumann 2004;Li & Grant 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Schumann 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Li & Grant 2015 source
- Premisecitation§ 4.1.1 Rationale and empirical evidence
Linck et al. (2014) meta-analysis found a positive relationship between working memory and outcomes of L2 proficiency and processing, with an estimated population effect size (p) of 0.255.
“the results were positive, as indicated by an estimated population effect size (p) of 0.255.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Linck et al. 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitude
The activity level of the left caudate and fusiform regions serves as an important neurobiological marker for predicting FL aptitude in the area of L2 reading.
“This finding thus suggests that the activity level of these brain regions serves as an important neurobiological marker for predicting FL aptitude in the area of L2 reading.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tan et al. 2011 source
- Rests on an assumption: The left caudate and fusiform regions mediate language control functions and are involved in resolving competition arising from L1 during L2 use.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 3.3 The information processing perspective and the Macro-SLA aptitude model
Skehan's conception of FL aptitude aims to explain the underlying causes for individual differences in final L2 learning outcome rather than solely predict outcomes.
“instead of solely relying on an aptitude score to predict L2 learning outcomes (typical in Carroll's time), Skehan opts for an approach that serves to EXPLAIN the underlying causes for the more superficial IDs in the final learning outcome of an L2.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitude
Distinct brain connectivity patterns are observed as a function of explicit vs implicit instruction of the learned grammar/sequence rules.
“even within the learner group that received training, distinct brain connectivity patterns were also observed as a function of explicit vs implicit instruction of the learned grammar/sequence rules.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yang et al. 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 4.1.2 Implications for aptitude theory construction and test development
What all three proposals (Skehan, Robinson, Linck et al.) have in common is a central place for working memory.
“What all three proposals have in common is a central place for working memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes framework
Robinson's framework involves several embedded levels of analysis, progressing from fundamental and general abilities to more specific and variable educational contexts.
“Robinson presents the framework as involving several embedded levels of analysis.For example, basic cognitive abilities belong to the most deeply embedded and fundamental level, while aptitude complexes represent less core, embedded abilities, and finally task aptitudes, as well as actual performance, are the least embedded and most real-world aspects of the model.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Robinson 2005 source
- Interpretationcitation§ 3.7 Summary of current theoretical perspectives on FL aptitude
Neurobiological perspectives have produced the most compelling evidence for the critical role of phonological working memory in essential aspects of L2 learning, including phonology, vocabulary, and grammar/sequence rules.
“the neurobiological perspectives (such as those studies conducted by Golestani and Yang) have produced the most compelling evidence for the critical role of phonological working memory in essential aspects of L2 learning, including phonology, vocabulary, and grammar/sequence rules”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitude
Brain connectivity networks can serve as a reliable predictor for learning both L2 novel words and (artificial) grammar/sequence rules in different learning contexts.
“A series of studies conducted by Li and colleagues in their lab at Pennsylvania State University have amply demonstrated that brain connectivity networks can indeed serve as a reliable predictor for learning both L2 novel words and (artificial) grammar/sequence rules in different learning contexts”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li & Grant 2015 source
- Premisecitation§ 4.1.1 Rationale and empirical evidence
Phonological short-term memory is most relevant for the acquisition and development of vocabulary, formulaic sequences and grammar.
“phonological shortterm memory has been shown to be most relevant for the acquisition and development of vocabulary, formulaic sequences and grammar”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisenone given§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitude
Anatomical or activation differences are associated with distinct aspects and levels of L2 learning and processing.
“The anatomical or activation differences are then associated with distinct aspects and levels of L2 learning and processing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ 3.1 The learning difficulties perspective and the Lingusitic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH) model
The LCDH aptitude model complements Carroll's original four-factor view of FL aptitude by adding L1 and L2 phonology/orthographic decoding skill as an important factor of aptitude.
“the LCDH aptitude model as advocated by Sparks and colleagues further complements Carroll's original four-factor view of FL aptitude by adding the extra (sub-)component of 'L1 and L2 phonology/orthographic decoding skill' as an important factor of aptitude”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chan, Skehan & Gong 2011 source
- Premisecitation§ 3.5 Cognitive science and the High Level Language Aptitude Battery (Hi-LAB) model
The Hi-LAB was developed by researchers at the University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language.
“the development of the 'High-Level Language Aptitude Battery (Hi-LAB) by researchers at the University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Doughty et al. 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Doughty 2013 source
- cites Linck et al. 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitude
Talented phoneticians tend to have greater amounts of grey matter and white matter in the parietal regions of the left hemisphere of their brains.
“who investigated brain structure among talented phoneticians and found that they tend to have greater amounts of grey matter and white matter in the parietal regions of the left hemisphere of their brains.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Golestani & Zatorre 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Golestani, Price & Scott 2011 source
- cites Golestani 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ 4.1.2 Implications for aptitude theory construction and test development
The concept of FL aptitude has developed from being seen as a stable and unitary fixed trait (Carroll's time) to being considered as a more dynamic and multiple set of abilities which interact with other internal or external factors.
“the concept of FL aptitude has developed from being seen as a stable and unitary fixed trait (Carroll's time) to being considered as a more dynamic and multiple set of abilities which interact with other internal or external factors”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Robinson 2007 source
- cites Aguado 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processes
The third interface position is not so well represented at present.
“The third position is not so well represented at present.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processes
There is an aptitude connection with resistance to L1 attrition in post-critical period speakers where exposure to the L1 ends or is minimal.
“There is even an aptitude connection with resistance to L1 attrition in post-critical period speakers where exposure to the L1 ends or is minimal (Bylund, Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam 2010).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bylund, Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- The authors state this as an assumption: A critical period for language learning may exist.
- Premisecitation§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processes
Hi-LAB contains sub-tests of implicit learning as well as others of a more explicit nature.
“Hi-LAB (Doughty et al. 2010;Linck et al. 2013) also contains sub-tests of implicit learning (as well as others of a more explicit nature).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Doughty et al. 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Linck et al. 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ 5. Conclusion
Current Hi-LAB research uses aptitude information to diagnose learner strengths and weaknesses.
“current Hi-LAB research where aptitude information is used to diagnose learner strengths and weaknesses”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jackson & Doughty 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ 4.3 Knowledge vs control, and implications for aptitude tests
Hi-LAB has made important progress in developing some relevant aptitude tests.
“CANAL-F, to some degree, but Hi-LAB, in particular, has made important progress in developing some relevant aptitude tests.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Doughty et al. 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Linck et al. 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ 4.2 Micro approaches to language aptitude: Towards systematicity
Another major change in FL aptitude research in the last 20 years or so is a shift from 'macro' to 'micro' research designs.
“Another major change that has taken place with FL aptitude research in the last 20 years or so is a shift from 'macro' to 'micro' research designs (Skehan 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processes
Choices about aptitude test content have connections with major issues regarding SLA and the nature of language itself.
“In other words, choices about aptitude test content have connections with major issues regarding SLA and the nature of language itself.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4.2 Micro approaches to language aptitude: Towards systematicity
Aptitude can be an important explanatory variable at a process level.
“They do suggest that aptitude can be an important explanatory variable at a process level.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processes
The first two interface positions are probably most consistent with existing aptitude test batteries, since batteries like the MLAT present material and allow explicit processes to operate upon this material.
“The first two positions are probably the most consistent with existing aptitude test batteries, since batteries like the MLAT do present material and allow explicit processes to operate upon this material.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Probably not a substantial claim. 37
- It may state two separate claims as one. 22
Probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone given§ 5. ConclusionRecent years have witnessed significant progress in language aptitude test construction, from MLAT to CANAL-F, LLAMA, and Hi-LAB.
“recent years have witnessed significant progress in both language aptitude test construction (e.g. from MLAT to CANAL-F, LLAMA and Hi-LAB) and theoretical conceptualization as well as research paradigms (from MLAT-based 'predictive' correlation studies to current interactional studies that aim to both predict and 'explain' SLA).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone given§ 5. ConclusionRecent years have witnessed significant progress in theoretical conceptualization and research paradigms in language aptitude, from MLAT-based predictive correlation studies to current interactional studies that aim to both predict and explain SLA.
“recent years have witnessed significant progress in both language aptitude test construction (e.g. from MLAT to CANAL-F, LLAMA and Hi-LAB) and theoretical conceptualization as well as research paradigms (from MLAT-based 'predictive' correlation studies to current interactional studies that aim to both predict and 'explain' SLA).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ Associative memoryThe actual number of empirical studies on FL aptitude is relatively limited, indicating a clear lack of interest among researchers until recent years.
“the actual number of empirical studies (Table 2) is relatively limited, which indicates a clear lack of interest among researchers in this topic until recent years (Li 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 1.1 Clarification of basic concepts: Aptitude vs abilityCarroll regarded aptitude as a latent trait that is relatively stable and relatively resistant to training, and which refers to the potential for achievement provided instruction is optimal.
“he regarded aptitude as a sort of ability, namely a latent trait that is relatively stable and relatively resistant to training, and which refers to the potential for achievement provided instruction is optimal.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Carroll 1981
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 2. Yesterday: Early conceptions of and research on FL aptitudeCarroll's four-factor conceptual framework of FL aptitude has proved more enduring than the MLAT test battery itself and is still the most influential portrayal of FL aptitude available.
“This conceptual framework of FL aptitude, as Skehan (2002) cogently puts it, has proved to be more enduring than even the MLAT test battery itself and to date it is still the most influential portrayal of FL aptitude available (Skehan 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Skehan 2002 source
- cites Skehan 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 1.1 Clarification of basic concepts: Aptitude vs abilityCarroll clearly differentiated the terms ability, aptitude, and achievement.
“John Carroll (1993), clearly differentiated the terms 'ability', 'aptitude' and 'achievement'.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Carroll 1993 source
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisereasoning§ 1.1 Clarification of basic concepts: Aptitude vs abilityAn ability is an aptitude if it predicts the rate and speed of learning.
“Therefore, an ability is an aptitude if it predicts the rate and speed of learning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ 1.1 Clarification of basic concepts: Aptitude vs abilityFL aptitude is a componential concept consisting of a set of cognitive abilities.
“To begin with, 'FL aptitude' should be considered an umbrella term consisting of a set of COGNITIVE abilities, thus making it a COMPONENTIAL concept (Carroll 1981(Carroll , 1993;;Skehan 1998;Sparks et al. 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Carroll 1981
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Carroll 1993 source
- cites Skehan 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ Associative memoryThe role of language aptitude is not just confined to traditional formal/instructed settings but is also viable under different learning conditions and contexts, including today's communicative classrooms.
“this body of research has shown that the role of language aptitude is not just confined to traditional formal/instructed settings (as originally postulated by Carroll 1962), but is also viable under different learning conditions and in different learning contexts (Wesche 1981;Reves 1982), as well as in today's communicative classrooms (Robinson 1996”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Wesche 1981
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Reves 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Robinson 1996 source
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ 1.2 Clarification of basic concepts: Aptitude vs intelligenceIntelligence and analytic ability are interrelated, whereas phonetic coding ability and memory factors are separate components of FL aptitude, independent of the g factor.
“Sasaki concluded that intelligence and analytic ability are interrelated, whereas phonetic coding ability and memory factors are separate components of FL aptitude, independent of the g factor”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sasaki 1996
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitudeThe number of empirical studies on the neurological substrates of FL aptitude is growing, producing accumulating evidence that is consistent and replicable across studies.
“the number of empirical studies on the neurological substrates of FL aptitude is growing, producing accumulating evidence that is consistent and replicable across studies (Biedroń 2015; also see Li, Legault & Litcofsky 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes frameworkRobinson's Aptitude Complexes/Ability Differential framework incorporates two closely interlocking hypotheses: the Aptitude Complexes Hypothesis and the Ability Differentiation Hypothesis.
“Robinson's (2005Robinson's ( , 2007Robinson's ( , 2012) ) 'Aptitude Complexes/Ability Differential' framework.As its name clearly denotes, there are two closely interlocking hypotheses incorporated in the framework.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes frameworkRobinson's conception emphasizes dynamic interactions between learner ability factors and inherent task characteristics, with aptitude-treatment interactions taking place at all levels and influencing task performance and real-world performance.
“Robinson's theoretical conception of FL aptitude differs from previous models with its most articulate emphasis on the DYNAMIC interactions between learner ability factors (either of lowerlevel core cognitive abilities or higher-level aptitude complexes) and the inherent task characteristics (or 'task complexity' in his own terms, Robinson 2005Robinson , 2007Robinson , 2012)).Such aptitude”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 3.2The CANAL-F theory emphasizes the ability to handle novelty and ambiguity when learning an L2.
“This theory emphasizes the ability to handle novelty and ambiguity when learning an L2.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Grigorenko et al. 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.3 The information processing perspective and the Macro-SLA aptitude modelThe aptitude components of phonetic coding ability and working memory are most likely related to the initial stage of input processing and to noticing.
“it can be argued that the aptitude components of 'phonetic coding ability' and working memory are most likely to be related to the initial stage of input processing and to noticing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ 3.5 Cognitive science and the High Level Language Aptitude Battery (Hi-LAB) modelThe motivation for developing Hi-LAB was a perceived need for an aptitude battery suitable for the prediction and explanation of high levels of L2 proficiency, targeted particularly at talented post-critical-period language learners.
“The motivation for this development has been a perceived need to develop an aptitude battery suitable for the prediction and explanation of high levels of L2 proficiency, targeted particularly at talented post-critical-period language learners.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Doughty et al. 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone given§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes frameworkThere is as yet little data on how Robinson's hypotheses have been tested.
“There is, as yet, little data on how these hypotheses have been tested.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ 3.5 Cognitive science and the High Level Language Aptitude Battery (Hi-LAB) modelThe Hi-LAB evidence is intriguing and encouraging but not conclusive in terms of validation for the Hi-LAB.
“This evidence is intriguing and encouraging, but not conclusive in terms of validation for the Hi-LAB.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationcitation§ 3.3 The information processing perspective and the Macro-SLA aptitude modelLanguage analytical ability, a combination of Carroll's grammar sensitivity and inductive language learning plus working memory, should be related to the stages of pattern identification, restructuring, and extending.
“As for language analytical ability (a combination of Carroll's original 'grammar sensitivity' and 'inductive language learning' as well, again, as working memory), Skehan believes they should be related to the stages of pattern identification and restructuring, and extending.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.3 The information processing perspective and the Macro-SLA aptitude modelSkehan's conception of FL aptitude remains at a speculative stage and further empirical support is necessary before it can be fully operationalized and put into practice.
“Despite its theoretical appeal, Skehan's conception of FL aptitude remains at a speculative stage and, therefore, further empirical support is necessary before this model can be fully operationalized and put into practice”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes frameworkThe Aptitude Complexes Hypothesis claims that a set of basic cognitive abilities combine to form higher-order aptitude complexes that are drawn on in learning a certain task.
“The first, the Aptitude Complexes Hypothesis (based on the ideas of 'aptitude complexes' by Snow 1987Snow , 1994) ) claims that a set of basic cognitive abilities (such as 'processing speed', 'pattern recognition', 'phonological working memory capacity,') combine to form higherorder aptitude complexes (such as 'noticing the gap' and 'memory for contingent speed') that are being drawn on in”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Snow 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Snow 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ 3.1 The learning difficulties perspective and the Lingusitic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH) modelIf a student experiences difficulties in L1 phonology/orthography, their subsequent L2 learning will likely suffer as well.
“if a student experiences difficulties in L1 phonology/orthography, his/her subsequent L2 learning will likely suffer as well (Sparks & Ganschow 2001: 97).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sparks & Ganschow 2001 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes frameworkRobinson's conception differs from Skehan's by providing a finer-grained representation of the complex structure of human cognitive abilities and clearer reference to specific educational contexts.
“However, it slightly differs from Skehan's approach in that it tries to provide a finer-grained representation of the complex structure of human cognitive abilities (Carroll 1993) and also makes clearer reference to specific educational contexts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Carroll 1993 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown data§ 3.5 Cognitive science and the High Level Language Aptitude Battery (Hi-LAB) modelThe Hi-LAB tests that seemed more effective tended to probe long-term memory and to have more prominent language-specific material.
“the tests which seemed more effective here tended to probe long-term memory (consistent with Skehan's 1998 speculation that memory is more important at higher levels of achievement) and also tended to be tests with more prominent language-specific material”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ 3.1 The learning difficulties perspective and the Lingusitic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH) modelThe basic premise of the LCDH model is that native language (L1) literacy skills are essential for predicting L2 learning.
“the basic premise of the LCDH model lies in the argument that native language (L1) literacy skills are essential for predicting L2 learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitudeExplicit learners engage more of a network that relies on the insula as a relay station, whereas implicit learners evoke a more direct frontalstriatal network in language learning and processing.
“Yang & Li 2012) which found that the explicit learners engaged more of a network that relies on the insula as a relay station, whereas their implicit counterparts evoked a more direct frontalstriatal network in language learning and processing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yang & Li 2012 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes frameworkThe Ability Differentiation Hypothesis claims that L2 learners demonstrate variations within the set of cognitive abilities, with strengths in some and weaknesses in others, leading to differentiated profiles in corresponding aptitude complexes.
“The second, the Ability Differentiation Hypothesis claims that L2 learners demonstrate variations within the set of cognitive abilities (with strengths in some of them and weaknesses in others), thus leading to differentiated profiles in corresponding aptitude complexes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Robinson 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes frameworkRobinson proposes that relevant aptitude is not always the same, and that content of learning or instructional conditions interact with the aspects of aptitude that are most relevant.
“Robinson is proposing that relevant 'aptitude' is not always the same, and that content of learning, or instructional conditions interact with the aspects of aptitude that are most relevant.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 3.4 Aptitude-treatment interaction and the Aptitude Complexes frameworkRobinson's framework includes four aptitude complexes: an aptitude for a focus on form, an aptitude for incidental learning via oral content, an aptitude for incidental learning via written content, and an aptitude for explicit rule learning.
“there are four 'aptitude complexes' in the framework.They are namely, an aptitude for a focus on form; an aptitude for incidental learning, via oral content; an aptitude for incidental learning via written content; and an aptitude for explicit rule learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Robinson 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisenone given§ 3.6 Cognitive neuroscience and brain networks as FL aptitudeBrain-based neurological explorations can be divided into two types: those focusing on structural aspects of brain anatomy and those connected with functional aspects of brain activation.
“these brain-based neurological explorations can be divided into two types: those that focus on the STRUCTURAL aspects of brain anatomy and those connected with FUNCTIONAL aspects of brain activation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisenone given§ Associative memoryThe concept of FL aptitude has remained intact as a relatively fixed trait not subject to malleability by later learning experience, and until the twenty-first century the research conventions barely changed.
“The concept has remained intact -a relatively fixed trait that is not subject to malleability by later learning experience -and until the twenty-first century the research conventions barely changed”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 3.5 Cognitive science and the High Level Language Aptitude Battery (Hi-LAB) modelTests of executive working memory, processing speed, and auditory tests did not distinguish between the successful and very successful learner groups.
“the tests of executive working memory did not distinguish between the groups, nor did processing speed or the auditory tests.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Linck et al. 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationcitation§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processesSuch research may provide clues as to possible brain localization and neural substrates linked to performance on explicit or implicitly oriented aptitude tests.
“Such research may provide clues as to possible brain localization and neural substrates linked to performance on explicit or implicitly oriented aptitude tests (Li & Grant 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li & Grant 2015 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processesSuch compensation derives from a high level of talent for explicit language learning.
“On this basis, DeKeyser (2000) proposes that such compensation derives from a high level of talent for explicit language learning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites DeKeyser 2000 source
- The authors state this as an assumption: A critical period for language learning may exist.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 4.2 Micro approaches to language aptitude: Towards systematicityThe relationship with aptitude may have a different time course with explicit and implicit conditions, growing in impact with implicit conditions after showing little relationship initially, whereas effects with explicit manipulations emerge sooner and do not grow.
“he notes that a relationship with aptitude may have a different time course with explicit and implicit conditions, growing in impact with implicit conditions after showing little relationship initially, whereas effects with explicit manipulations emerge sooner, and do not grow”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan 2015a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 4.3 Knowledge vs control, and implications for aptitude testsLLAMA D is a measure of implicit learning since it contains no explicit presentation and was distinct from other (more explicit) aptitude measures in a factor analytic study while nonetheless loading similarly to other implicit measures.
“Granena (2013Granena ( , 2015) ) argues that LLAMA D is a measure of implicit learning since it contains no explicit presentation and was also distinct from other (more explicit) aptitude measures in a factor analytic study while nonetheless loading similarly to other implicit measures.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Granena 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Granena 2015 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processesThere have been proposals that suggest different brain connectivity networks for implicit and explicit learning.
“since there have been proposals that suggest different brain connectivity networks for implicit and explicit learning (Yang et al. 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Yang et al. 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 5. ConclusionAdvances in theoretical conception and methodological innovation in FL aptitude have been limited due to marginalized interest in the concept.
“due to the marginalized interest in the concept of FL aptitude, advances in both theoretical conception and methodological innovation have been limited”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The concept of FL aptitude has been marginalized in applied linguistics/SLA.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.3 Knowledge vs control, and implications for aptitude testsNew tests are needed if we are to be able to account for, and predict, advanced level language achievement.
“But new tests are needed if we are to be able to account for, and predict, advanced level language achievement”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Doughty et al. 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 4.2 Micro approaches to language aptitude: Towards systematicityWith implicit feedback, aptitude links with complexity of the L1-L2 relationship.
“In contrast, with implicit feedback, aptitude links with complexity of L1-L2 relationship.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan 2015a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ 4.2 Micro approaches to language aptitude: Towards systematicityAptitude has shown effects over quite short time intervals, and in a way more clearly related to acquisitional processes.
“A first point to make about this research is that aptitude has shown effects over quite short time intervals, and in a way more clearly related to acquisitional processes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.1.2 Implications for aptitude theory construction and test developmentThe 'working memory-based perspective on FL aptitude' represents an aptitude theory 'for tomorrow'.
“we argue that the 'working memory-based perspective on FL aptitude', to use the words from Snow's (1992) title, represents an aptitude theory 'for tomorrow'.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Snow 1992 source
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processesEach of explicit and implicit approaches to aptitude may have areas of greater relevance, e.g. explicit for instructional contexts, implicit for more naturalistic domains.
“since each may have areas of greater relevance, e.g.explicit for instructional contexts, implicit for more naturalistic domains.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationcitation§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processesAptitude could be linked to neurolinguistic research on brain connectivity networks.
“Aptitude could be linked to this research (Schumann 2004;Carpenter 2008;Xiang et al. 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Schumann 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Carpenter 2008
- cites Xiang et al. 2012 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 4.2 Micro approaches to language aptitude: Towards systematicityStudies in Li's (2015) review have broadly indicated that aptitude has an effect even in short-duration, focused studies, and that aptitude tends to generate larger effect sizes with explicit rather than implicit treatments.
“The studies in Li's (2015) review have broadly indicated that aptitude has an effect even in such short-duration, focused studies, and that aptitude tends to generate larger effect sizes with explicit rather than implicit treatments”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ 4.2 Micro approaches to language aptitude: Towards systematicityWith explicit instruction or feedback, aptitude is more likely to enter into stronger relationships with learning when focal grammar points are redundant for communication.
“With explicit instruction or feedback, aptitude is more likely to enter into stronger relationships with learning when focal grammar points are redundant for communication.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan 2015a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 5. ConclusionAdvances in FL aptitude theoretical conception and methodological innovation have been dwarfed compared to developments in L2 motivation.
“particularly dwarfed when compared to the enormous developments with its individual difference counterpart of L2 motivation”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The concept of FL aptitude has been marginalized in applied linguistics/SLA.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processesGranena & Long (2013) report a less strong compensatory role for aptitude.
“Granena & Long (2013) report a less strong compensatory role for aptitude.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Granena & Long 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- The authors state this as an assumption: A critical period for language learning may exist.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processesFL aptitude does not exist in a vacuum; the nature of aptitude sub-tests, and more especially the nature of the sub-tests that work, provides a commentary on fundamental issues in language learning.
“But the analysis demonstrates that FL aptitude does not exist in a vacuum.The nature of aptitude sub-tests, and more especially the nature of the sub-tests that work, provides a commentary on fundamental issues in language learning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 5. ConclusionIncorporating working memory as a central component of FL aptitude can greatly compensate for some limitations in previous interpretations of the construct.
“the proposal of incorporating working memory as a central component of FL aptitude, and the theoretical linkages between aptitude components and learning or acquisition processes, can greatly compensate for some limitations in previous interpretations of the construct.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 4.4 Domain-specificity/generality and explicit vs implicit processesHigh aptitude has a compensating function and is associated with the capacity to reach close to native-like L2 levels after a critical period has closed.
“several studies have suggested (DeKeyser 2000;Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam 2008;Biedroń & Pawlak 2016) that high aptitude has a compensating function and is associated with the capacity to reach close to native-like L2 levels after a critical period has closed”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites DeKeyser 2000 source
- cites Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam 2008 source
- cites Biedroń & Pawlak 2016 source
- The authors state this as an assumption: A critical period for language learning may exist.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 5. ConclusionTheoretical linkages between aptitude components and learning or acquisition processes can greatly compensate for some limitations in previous interpretations of the construct.
“the proposal of incorporating working memory as a central component of FL aptitude, and the theoretical linkages between aptitude components and learning or acquisition processes, can greatly compensate for some limitations in previous interpretations of the construct.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The left parietal cortex is pertinent to auditory and articulatory aspects and sub-serves phonological working memory.
“This area (left parietal cortex), generally assumed to be pertinent to auditory and articulatory aspects, is believed to sub-serve phonological working memory as well.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The left caudate and fusiform regions mediate language control functions and are involved in resolving competition arising from L1 during L2 use.
“The left caudate and fusiform regions are usually thought to mediate language control functions and likely are involved in resolving competition arising from L1 during L2 use.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
A critical period for language learning may exist.
“If we do assume, though, for this discussion, that a critical period may exist”
The paper relies on this without support.
The concept of FL aptitude has been marginalized in applied linguistics/SLA.
“due to the marginalized interest in the concept of FL aptitude”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
ATI effects are to be expected.
“More recently, scholars have likewise pointed out that ATI effects are to be expected (Grañena, 2013c;Kormos, 2013;Wen et al., 2017).”
From The role of individual learner differences in explicit language instruction (2024) · cites this paper as Wen et al., 2017
The MLAT has traditionally proven useful in predicting broader language-learning outcomes, including sound-symbol association, memory, and analytic language-learning ability.
“The MLAT has traditionally proven useful in predicting broader languagelearning outcomes, including sound-symbol association, memory, and analytic languagelearning ability (Carroll & Sapon, 2002;Wen et al., 2017).”
From On English Language Learners’ Prosody: The Possible Impact of L2 Aptitude, Musical Ability, and Proficiency on Nuclear Accent Placement in Spanish L1 Contexts (2026) · cites this paper as Wen et al., 2017
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
CANAL-F is described as having both nine and five sections
MinorThe text says the CANAL-F test has nine sections, but its description calls section five the final section.
“The CANAL-F test contains nine sections.”
“The final, fifth, section involves learning language rules.”
Two different study counts are given for Li's 2015 meta-analysis
MinorThe paper describes Li's 2015 meta-analysis as including 34 studies and 3,239 participants, then describes it as including 33 studies and 3,106 participants. It does not explain a change in the set of studies being counted.
“a recent meta-analysis conducted by Li (2015) of 34 sampled FL aptitude studies (N = 3239)”
“The first was conducted by Li (2015) and investigated the correlation results between aptitude (mostly MLAT-based; excluding working memory), and L2 outcomes with a total of 33 empirical studies (17 predictive and 16 interactional) that involved 3,106 L2 learners.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Wen, Z. (., Biedroń, A., & Skehan, P.
- Affiliations
- Macao Polytechnic University (MO)
- Uniwersytet Pomorski w Słupsku (PL)
- St Mary's University Twickenham London (GB)
- Venue
- Language Teaching
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2016-12-21
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-31
- ISSN
- 0261-4448 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-3049
- OpenAlex
- W2563116162
- Semantic Scholar
- e738c99333e1ca3d50590206fa089902c472e53a
- Cited by
- 248
- References
- 153
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 8
- FWCI
- 77.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Language Teaching (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- foreign language aptitude, second language acquisition, John Carroll, working memory, implicit learning, automation, aptitude tests, domain specificity, domain generality
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