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Acute effects of moderate aerobic exercise on specific aspects of executive function in different age and fitness groups: A meta‐analysis
Abstract
Whereas a wealth of studies have investigated acute effects of moderate aerobic exercise on executive function, the roles of age, fitness, and the component of executive function in this relationship still remain unclear. Therefore, the present meta‐analysis investigates exercise‐induced benefits on specific aspects of executive function in different age and aerobic fitness subgroups. Based on data from 40 experimental studies, a small effect of aerobic exercise on time‐dependent measures (g = .35) and accuracy (g = .22) in executive function tasks was confirmed. The results further suggest that preadolescent children (g = .54) and older adults (g = .67) compared to other age groups benefit more from aerobic exercise when reaction time is considered as dependent variable. In contrast to age, aerobic fitness and the executive function component had no influence on the obtained effect sizes. Consequently, high aerobic fitness is no prerequisite for temporary improvements of the executive control system, and low‐ as well as high‐fit individuals seem to benefit from exercise in a similar way. However, a higher sensitivity of executive function to acute aerobic exercise was found in individuals undergoing developmental changes. Therefore, preadolescent children and older adults in particular might strategically use a single aerobic exercise session to prepare for a situation demanding high executive control.
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“Two authors used a modified version of the PEDro scale [31] to evaluate the methodological quality of the included studies. If there was a disagreement, a third author evaluated the issue, which was discussed until a consensus was reached.”
From Systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of exercise on depression in adolescents (2022) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“Although effects were observed across the lifespan, larger effects (Hedges’ g) were realized for preadolescent children (0.54 [0.21, 0.87]) and older adults (0.67 [0.40, 0.93]) relative to adolescents (0.04 [−0.14, 0.23]) and young adults (0.20 [0.07, 0.34]) for executive function (67).”
From Physical Activity, Cognition, and Brain Outcomes: A Review of the 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines (2019) · cites this paper as [67]
In the citing paper
“Overall, the findings strongly indicate that transient cognitive benefits may be derived following single acute bouts of PA. Such effects appear strongest for preadolescent children and older adults and for a PA dose of moderate intensity (65–68), with further evidence supporting 11-20 minutes in duration as the optimal range for enhancing cognitive function (65).”
From Physical Activity, Cognition, and Brain Outcomes: A Review of the 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines (2019) · cites this paper as [67]
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Self-citationA primer on investigating the after effects of acute bouts of physical activity on cognition
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BackgroundResultPhysical exercise as an epigenetic modulator of brain plasticity and cognition
Fernandes, J., Arida, R. M., & Gómez‐Pinilla, F. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.012 · Cited by 361
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“For instance, physical activity and/or exercise were shown to improve cognition in children (Hillman and Schott, 2013; Chaddock-Heyman et al., 2014; Khan and Hillman, 2014; Verburgh et al., 2014; Ludyga et al., 2016), in adolescents (Verburgh et al.”
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“In the meta-analysis of Ludyga et al. (2016) it was suggested that short aerobic exercise bouts of moderate intensity restore cognitive resources, a finding that is in line with our results.”
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BackgroundResultInfluentialExercise for cognitive brain health in aging
Gomes‐Osman, J., Cabral, D. F., Morris, T. P., McInerney, K., Cahalin, L. P., Rundek, T., Oliveira, A., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2018) · Neurology Clinical Practice · doi:10.1212/cpj.0000000000000460 · Cited by 195
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Self-citationAcute Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function and Attention in Adult Patients With ADHD
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“Based on previous studies showing that individuals with lower cognitive performance levels are more susceptible to benefits from exercise (15, 30, 51), we expected that patients would benefit to a greater extent.”
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A Review of Acute Physical Activity Effects on Brain and Cognition in Children
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“Some meta-analytic investigations suggest that there is no effect of acute PA on cognitive flexibility (46,47), whereas others have shown a more general positive effect of acute PA on executive control with no differences between the various subcomponents (13).”
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The Effect of Acute High-Intensity Interval Training on Executive Function: A Systematic Review
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“In this respect, meta-analytical findings have shown that acute moderately intense aerobic exercise transiently benefits executive functions among healthy individuals (Ludyga, Gerber, Brand, Holsboer-Trachsler, & Pühse, 2016).”
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“…that at least among healthy samples and pediatric patients with ADHD a single bout of exercise improved executive function and attention [see Ludyga et al. (2016, 2017) for a broader overview], while such an intervention has not so far been trialed among adult Frontiers in Psychology |…”
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Mehren, A., Luque, C. D., Brandes, M., Lam, A. P., Thiel, C. M., Philipsen, A., & Özyurt, J. (2019) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2019/8608317 · Cited by 85
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“Furthermore, caution is needed as most evidence for the acute exercise effects on EFs have been derived based on EF tests mainly testing inhibition (Ludyga et al., 2016), and there are also several studies suggesting no effects or even detrimental effects (Basso and Suzuki, 2017).”
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“Consistent with prior investigations (Chan et al., 2022; Ludyga et al., 2016), our study reveals a compelling relationship between activity and individual inhibitory control.”
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Exercising is good for the brain but exercising outside is potentially better
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“As summarized in Figure 3, the change in interference effect of the reaction time from baseline to follow‐up was significantly greater for SRF than for SWF 19 ms, 95% CI [3, 35] (P = 0.”
BackgroundAcute Exercise and Neurocognitive Development in Preadolescents and Young Adults: An ERP Study
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“This finding is accordance with a recent meta-analytic study [87] in which the authors suggested the greater benefits of acute exercise for preadolescent children who are undergoing executive function development changes, such as changes in the middle frontal gyrus and left extrastriate region [50].”
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Chang, Y., Chen, F., Kuan, G., Wei, G., Chu, C., Yan, J., Chen, A., & Hung, T. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00227 · Cited by 56
Gall, S., Müller, I., Walter, C., Seelig, H., Steenkamp, L., Pühse, U., du Randt, R., Smith, D., Adams, L., Nqweniso, S., et al. (2017) · PLoS neglected tropical diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005573 · Cited by 59
Self-citationGall, S., Adams, L., Joubert, N., Ludyga, S., Müller, I., Nqweniso, S., Pühse, U., du Randt, R., Seelig, H., Smith, D., et al. (2018) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0206908 · Cited by 52
Self-citationAcute and Long-term Effects of Resistance Training on Executive Function
Soga, K., Masaki, H., Gerber, M., & Ludyga, S. (2018) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0079-y · Cited by 56
“Considering the growing body of research that indicates positive effects of aerobic exercise on children’s cognitive performance (Álvarez-Bueno et al. 2017; Ludyga et al. 2016), it is likely that resistance training may also have a favorable impact on executive function in this age group.”
BackgroundSelf-citationAguirre-Loaiza, H., Arenas, J., Padilla, I. A., Jiménez, A. M. F., Barbosa-Granados, S., Bermúdez, S. R., Ayala-Zuluaga, F., Núñez, C., & García-Más, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02774 · Cited by 64
“Although it seems that physical condition is not a conditional requirement for temporary improvements and PE benefits (Ludyga et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialPhysical Activity Is Associated With Better Executive Function in University Students
Salas-Gómez, D., Fernández‐Gorgojo, M., Pozueta, A., Ceballos, I. D., Lamarain, M., Pérez, C., Kazimierczak, M., & Sánchez‐Juan, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00011 · Cited by 67
Wilke, J. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69139-z · Cited by 56
Williams, R. A., Cooper, S. B., Dring, K. J., Hatch, L. M., Morris, J. G., Sunderland, C. D., & Nevill, M. E. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09484-w · Cited by 64
“This may also be more applicable to games-based exercise, which has both cognitive and physical demands, whereby those with a higher physical fitness can allocate greater cognitive resources to the activity itself [3].”
BackgroundOppici, L., Rudd, J. R., Buszard, T., & Spittle, S. (2020) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101675 · Cited by 62
Cai, Y., Wang, Z., Feng, L., & Ni, G.-X. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.876935 · Cited by 55
Albaladejo‐García, C., García-Aguilar, F., & Moreno, F. J. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105108 · Cited by 57
“, 2016), type of exercise (Takahashi & Grove, 2019), fitness level (Ludyga et al., 2016), expertise (Schapschröer et al.”
Feter, N., Ligeza, T. S., Bashir, N., Shanmugam, R., Herrera, B. M., Aldabbagh, T., Usman, A.-F., Yonezawa, A., McCarthy, S., Herrera, D., et al. (2024) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsports-2024-108444 · Cited by 49
“85 Few acute studies measured regional brain activation coupled with cognitive performance.”
Fitness-Dependent Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function
Li, L., Zhang, S., Cui, J., Chen, L.-Z., Wang, X., Fan, M., & Wei, G. (2019) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2019.00902 · Cited by 49
“However, a recent metaanalysis examined the moderating effect of aerobic fitness on the exercise-induced benefits on executive function, and failed to detect that the significant effect of moderate aerobic exercise on time-dependent measures of executive control differs when categorizing participants as low-fit, avera…”
BackgroundPellegrini-Laplagne, M., Dupuy, O., Sosner, P., & Bosquet, L. (2022) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-022-00595-3 · Cited by 52
Huang, T., Chen, F., Li, R., Hillman, C. H., Cline, T. L., Chu, C., Hung, T., & Chang, Y. (2022) · Sports Medicine - Open · doi:10.1186/s40798-022-00527-7 · Cited by 54
“As such, this systematic review removed the blinding of participants and investigators similar to a previous meta-analysis [2].”
ResultLiu, L., Xin, X., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1556721 · Cited by 73
Olivo, G., Nilsson, J., Garzón, B., Lebedev, A. V., Wåhlin, A., Tarassova, O., Ekblom, M., & Lövdén, M. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117500 · Cited by 46
Martínez-Díaz, I. C., Escobar-Muñoz, M. C., & Páez, L. C. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17218216 · Cited by 50
“First, the evidence is beginning to emerge that aerobic exercise might also be beneficial for such functioning in young adulthood, despite executive functioning peaking developmentally in that age group [35].”
BackgroundSchaeffer, E., Röeben, B., Granert, O., Hanert, A., Liepelt‐Scarfone, I., Leks, E., Otterbein, S., Saraykin, P., Busch, J., Synofzik, M., et al. (2021) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.15165 · Cited by 46
Aftereffects of Cognitively Demanding Acute Aerobic Exercise on Working Memory
Kamijo, K., & ABE, R. (2018) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001763 · Cited by 42
Ma, K., Wang, C., Huang, Y., Wang, Y., Li, D., & He, G. (2023) · Physiotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.physio.2023.07.005 · Cited by 42
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“Related studies [30, 31] demonstrated that moderate intensity was more beneficial to the development of executive function, while Chen et al. [32] compared the effects of different intensity basketball dribbling interventions and found that high intensity also helped to improve inhibitory control…”
BackgroundGerber, M., Cheval, B., Cody, R., Colledge, F., Hohberg, V., Klimentidis, Y. C., Lang, C., Looser, V. N., Ludyga, S., Stults‐Kolehmainen, M., et al. (2025) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00021.2024 · Cited by 59
Self-citationNicolini, C., Toepp, S. L., Harasym, D., Michalski, B., Fahnestock, M. L., Gibala, M. J., & Nelson, A. J. (2019) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.14140 · Cited by 48
The Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Divergent and Convergent Thinking and Its Influence by Mood
Aga, K., Inamura, M., Chen, C., Hagiwara, K., Yamashita, R., Hirotsu, M., Seki, T., Takao, A., Fujii, Y., Matsubara, T., et al. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11050546 · Cited by 45
“For instance, a single bout of aerobic exercise may improve attention and executive functions [2,4,5], boost the speed of information processing [3], and enhance memory storage and retrieval [1].”
BackgroundSchool Physical Activity Intervention Effect on Adolescents’ Performance in Mathematics
LUBANS, D. R., BEAUCHAMP, M. R., DIALLO, T. M. O., PERALTA, L. R., BENNIE, A., WHITE, R. L., OWEN, K., & LONSDALE, C. (2018) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001730 · Cited by 40
“appropriate intervention strategies (8).”
Ludyga, S., Held, S., Rappelt, L., Donath, L., & Klatt, S. (2022) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2022.2099765 · Cited by 43
“The transient benefits of a single exercise session for executive function are well-documented (Ludyga, Gerber, Brand, Holsboer-Trachsler, & Pühse, 2016) and may have further enhanced the learning effect during the subsequent practice of the working memory task.”
BackgroundSelf-citationEffects of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Response Inhibition in Adult Patients with ADHD
Mehren, A., Özyurt, J., Thiel, C. M., Brandes, M., Lam, A. P., & Philipsen, A. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-56332-y · Cited by 45
Wall, K. M., Stark, J. H., Schillaci, A., Saulnier, E. T., McLaren, E., Striegnitz, K., Cohen, B. D., Arciero, P. J., Kramer, A. F., & Anderson‐Hanley, C. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm7090249 · Cited by 40
“Of all the types of physical exercise interventions, aerobic exercise consistently had a medium effect size on global cognition in the MCI population [17] and an executive function in older adults [19].”
BackgroundResult
Metadata
- Authors
- Ludyga, S., Gerber, M., Brand, S., Holsboer‐Trachsler, E., & Pühse, U.
- Affiliations
- University of Basel (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Ludyga, Sebastian
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-08-24
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1611-1626
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2518187356
- Semantic Scholar
- c6cbe3b03cf7ae80284796b5af70690b72a4c36d
- Cited by
- 589
- References
- 118
- Citations by year
- 2026: 54 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 66 · 2019: 70 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 5.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- edoc (University of Basel) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- acute aerobic exercise, executive function, cardiorespiratory fitness, age differences, preadolescents, older adults, reaction time, task accuracy, cognitive performance
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Child, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Physical Fitness, Reaction Time, Exercise, Body Mass Index, Young Adult, Executive Function
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