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Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection.
Open accessAbstract
Variable memory: Immune memory against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) helps to determine protection against reinfection, disease risk, and vaccine efficacy. Using 188 human cases across the range of severity of COVID-19, Dan et al. analyzed cross-sectional data describing the dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 memory B cells, CD8 + T cells, and CD4 + T cells for more than 6 months after infection. The authors found a high degree of heterogeneity in the magnitude of adaptive immune responses that persisted into the immune memory phase to the virus. However, immune memory in three immunological compartments remained measurable in greater than 90% of subjects for more than 5 months after infection. Despite the heterogeneity of immune responses, these results show that durable immunity against secondary COVID-19 disease is a possibility for most individuals. Science , this issue p. eabf4063
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In the citing paper
“Memory B cells might contribute to the durability of antibody responses38,39; B cell germinal centre responses and the durability of protective efficacy following CV2CoV vaccination remain to be determined.”
From Optimization of non-coding regions for a non-modified mRNA COVID-19 vaccine (2022) · cites this paper as [39]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Although it is unclear how long protective effects last beyond the first few months after vaccination, some studies suggest that the elicited neutralizing activity is maintained for up to 8 months after the natural infection with SARS-CoV-2 (refs. 41,42).”
From Modeling vaccination rollouts, SARS-CoV-2 variants and the requirement for non-pharmaceutical interventions in Italy (2021) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“The mRNA vaccine clinical trials were not powered to address severe disease, including complications after hospitalization.29,30”
From Association Between mRNA Vaccination and COVID-19 Hospitalization and Disease Severity (2021) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“Data from medium-term follow-up of individuals after infection suggest that T cell responses wane more rapidly than antibody responses80.”
From Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans (2021) · cites this paper as [80]
In the citing paper
“Immunological studies of SARS-CoV-2 infection show that memory B and T cell responses appear to persist for at least 8 months after symptom onset (28, 29).”
From mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“These results are consistent with published observations of convalescent patients with Covid-19 through 8 months after symptom onset.5”
From Antibody Persistence through 6 Months after the Second Dose of mRNA-1273 Vaccine for Covid-19 (2021) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Robust CD4+ and CD8+ T cell memory is induced after COVID-19,22,39, 40, 41 and multiple COVID-19 vaccines elicit CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses.26,42, 43, 44, 45”
From Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the total CD4+ and CD8+ T cell reactivity in infected or vaccinated individuals (2021) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“SARS-CoV-2 infection rapidly elicits nAbs (16, 21–24) that decline, but remain detectable, over several months (25–29).”
From mRNA vaccination boosts cross-variant neutralizing antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“Overall, the accumulating evidence from our study and others22-25 shows that long-term humoral response and vaccine effectiveness in previously infected persons were superior to that in recipients of two doses of vaccine.”
From Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“Several studies on the durability of humoral response in persons who have recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection showed that both IgG and neutralizing antibody levels decrease only modestly at 8 to 10 months after the infection.22,23”
From Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“this measurement does not account for Fc effector functions; Fcγ receptor or complement protein engagement by non-, weakly-, or strongly- neutralizing antibodies that bind the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on the surface of infected cells could confer substantial protection39–41.”
From Resistance of SARS-CoV-2 variants to neutralization by monoclonal and serum-derived polyclonal antibodies (2021) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Although neutralizing antibody titers have not correlated with reduced COVID-19 severity (Dan et al., 2021; Piccoli et al., 2020; Robbiani et al., 2020), SARS-CoV-2 cTfh cell frequencies have been associated with reduced disease severity (Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“However, it should also be noted that circulating SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody titers are relatively low in a substantial fraction of recovered COVID-19 cases (Dan et al., 2021; Robbiani et al., 2020; Wajnberg et al., 2020), indicating that either the neutralizing antibody potency or the serum concentration is suboptimal in this subset.”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Serum antibody titers were poorly predictive of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 CD4+ T cells in a study of 188 COVID-19 cases (Dan et al., 2021).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“In a cohort of 188 cases, memory B cells specific for Spike, RBD, and nucleocapsid were each detectable in 100% of subjects at 6+ months post-infection (Dan et al., 2021).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“data so far indicate that T cell memory, B cell memory, and antibodies are all likely to persist for years in most individuals infected by SARS-CoV-2 (Dan et al., 2021; Gaebler et al., 2020; Wajnberg et al., 2020; Zuo et al., 2020a).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Antibody titers were not a surrogate indicator of the magnitude of memory T cells (Dan et al., 2021), suggesting that simple antibody serodiagnostic tests will not be a robust indicator of protective immunity in people previously infected with SARS-CoV-2.”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“A previous study24 showed a decrease in neutralising antibody titres over the first 8 months of infection, with a half-life of around 3–4 months”
From Neutralising antibody titres as predictors of protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants and the impact of boosting: a meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [24]
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- 10.1126/science.abd7728 · DOI · Paper page
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Role of T Follicular Helper Cells in Viral Infections and Vaccine Design
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“This is in accordance with previous observations in adult cohorts, where SARS-CoV-2 antigen-specific antibodies have been found in 90% of patients up to 8 months after infection, although not predictive of T cell memory and with substantial heterogeneity among individuals [9].”
ResultApproach to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination in Patients With Multiple Sclerosis
Woopen, C., Schleußner, K., Akgün, K., & Ziemssen, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.701752 · Cited by 20
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“Consequently, to obtain a durable protective immunity, memory B cells and/or memory T cells must be obtained [13].”
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Long-Lasting Immunity Against SARS-CoV-2: Dream or Reality?
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“Recent studies show that SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody levels after an infection were detectable in the majority of donors over a period of up to 1 year, even though the rate of recession varied (9, 11, 12, 26, 27).”
BackgroundResultUsing correlates to accelerate vaccinology
Openshaw, P. (2022) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abn0007 · Cited by 17
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“Dan et al.27 recently showed that SARS‐CoV‐2‐specific IgG antibodies can be maintained for up to 8 months.”
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“The correlation between circulating antibody titres and T-cell immunity was incompletely understood [7].”
BackgroundVaccination games in prevention of infectious diseases with application to COVID-19
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“0042 day [40] τ Information interval 5 days See text ν Imitation rate 0.”
COVID‐19, obesity, and immune response 2 years after the pandemic: A timeline of scientific advances
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“As the evidence shows, immunological memory can last for several months with humoral – assessed by anti-spike (S), antinucleocapsid (N), and neutralizing antibodies – and cellular components – particularly memory B and T cells – exhibiting different kinetics in the peripheral blood.(10,11) Moreover, some form of memor…”
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Self-citationIntradermal DNA vaccine delivery using vacuum-controlled, needle-free electroporation
Generotti, A., Contreras, R., Zounes, B., Schade, E., Kemme, A., Rane, Y. S., Liu, X., Elwood, D., Schultheis, K., Marston, J. O., et al. (2023) · Molecular Therapy — Nucleic Acids · doi:10.1016/j.omtn.2023.102070 · Cited by 18
“45,46 A well-rounded immune response, generated with a noninvasive, easy-to-use, and well-tolerated ID-VEP device, is an attractive product pro fi le in these pandemic situations where widespread vaccination is required.”
BackgroundTesting for SARS-CoV-2: lessons learned and current use cases
Theel, E. S., Kirby, J. E., & Pollock, N. R. (2024) · Clinical Microbiology Reviews · doi:10.1128/cmr.00072-23 · Cited by 18
“Despite general waning of both binding and nAb levels, memory B and CD4+/CD8+ T cells remain detectable for over 8 months post-symptom onset and undergo continual clonal turnover allowing for increased nAb breath and potency against SARS-CoV-2 upon re-exposure (213, 214).”
BackgroundRunnstrom, M. C., Lamothe, P. A., Faliti, C. E., Cheedarla, N., Moreno, A., Suthar, M. S., Nahata, R., Ravindran, M., Haddad, N. S., Morrison-Porter, A., et al. (2024) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2024.03.029 · Cited by 18
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COVID-19: from immune response to clinical intervention
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“T his extended persistence indicates a potential for durable immune memory against SARS-CoV-2 [ 60 ].”
BackgroundLecouturier, J., Kelly, M. P., Graham, F., Meyer, C., Tang, M. Y., Goffe, L., Bonell, C. P., Michie, S., & Sniehotta, F. F. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113778 · Cited by 18
“The current (January 2021) knowledge is that antibodies are maintained for at least eight months (Dan 2021) and for at least three months in those who had mild COVID-19 symptoms (Rodda 2020).”
SARS-CoV-2: big seroprevalence data from Pakistan—is herd immunity at hand?
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“A recent study published in Science Journal reported that immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 can last longer than six months and revealed further that spike-IgG was relatively stable over six-plus months, and spike-specific memory B cells were more abundant at six months than at one month [37].”
BackgroundEvaluation of spike protein antigens for SARS-CoV-2 serology
Jagtap, S., Ratnasri, K., Valloly, P., Sharma, R., Maurya, S., Gaigore, A., Ardhya, C., Biligi, D. S., Desiraju, B. K., Natchu, U. C. M., et al. (2021) · Journal of Virological Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2021.114222 · Cited by 19
“For COVID-19 negative controls, serum samples collected during 2018− 19 from healthy donors (n = 33) and dengue patients (n = 61, Panbio dengue IgG/IgM capture ELISA kits, 01PE10/01PE20) and stored in -80 ◦C were used.”
InfluentialRichmond, P., Hatchuel, L., Pacciarini, F., Hu, B. T., Smolenov, I. V., Li, P., Liang, P., Han, H. H., Liang, J. G., & Clemens, R. L. (2021) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiab447 · Cited by 17
“These SARS-CoV-2–specific CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses also decline over the same period as IgG, with a halflife of 3–5 months [20].”
Backgroundde Campos‐Mata, L., Vaquero, S. T., Tachó‐Piñot, R., Piñero, J., Grasset, E. K., Arrieta‐Aldea, I., Melero, N. R., Carolis, C., Horcajada, J. P., Cerutti, A., et al. (2021) · Clinical & Translational Immunology · doi:10.1002/cti2.1339 · Cited by 17
An Assessment of Serological Assays for SARS-CoV-2 as Surrogates for Authentic Virus Neutralization
Wohlgemuth, N., Whitt, K. T., Cherry, S., Roubidoux, E. K., Lin, C.-Y., Allison, K., Gowen, A., Freiden, P. J., Allen, E. K., St. Jude Investigative Team, et al. (2021) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.01059-21 · Cited by 17
“While the majority of individuals who recover from SARS-CoV-2 infection have relatively long-lasting, protective immunity, a fraction do not mount protective immune responses and are susceptible to reinfection (12).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe race for a COVID-19 vaccine: where are we up to?
Hossain, M. K., Hassanzadeganroudsari, M., Feehan, J., & Apostolopoulos, V. (2021) · Expert Review of Vaccines · doi:10.1080/14760584.2022.2021074 · Cited by 17
An update on host immunity correlates and prospects of re-infection in COVID-19
Negi, N., Maurya, S. P., Singh, R., & Das, B. K. (2021) · International Reviews of Immunology · doi:10.1080/08830185.2021.2019727 · Cited by 20
“In general, immune memory is the primary source of long-term protective immunity [8, 9] and its repertoire/strength would help in determining protection against reinfection, disease risk, and vaccine efficacy.”
BackgroundRedox Homeostasis and Immune Alterations in Coronavirus Disease-19
Bellanti, F., Buglio, A. L., & Vendemiale, G. (2022) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology11020159 · Cited by 18
Kannenberg, J., Trawinski, H., Henschler, R., Buhmann, R., Hönemann, M., & Jassoy, C. (2022) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiac034 · Cited by 20
“The magnitude of the MBC response increases with time from infection and reached a maximum 4-5 months after symptom onset [4,7,10,12,14,15].”
Can the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variant Confer Natural Immunity against COVID-19?
Abas, A. H., Marfuah, S., Idroes, R., Kusumawaty, D., Fatimawali, F., Park, M. N., Siyadatpanah, A., Alhumaydhi, F. A., Mahmud, S., Tallei, T. E., et al. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27072221 · Cited by 18
“The reason is that most vaccination-induced immunity is based on serum antibody titers and efficacy measurements are also based on antibodies [98,99], while infection-induced immunity has additional T-cell-mediated immune responses [100,101] (Figure 5).”
BackgroundSingh, M., Adame, O. B., Nickas, M., Robison, J., Khatchadourian, C., & Venketaraman, V. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.833355 · Cited by 19
Boekel, L., Hooijberg, F., Vogelzang, E., Besten, Y., Leeuw, M., Atiqi, S., van Vollenhoven, R. F., Wijbrandts, C., Gerritsen, M., Krieckaert, C., et al. (2022) · RMD Open · doi:10.1136/rmdopen-2021-002035 · Cited by 16
Zhang, Y., Chen, Y., He, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, X., Liang, J., He, J., Lü, S., Gao, Z., Xu, J., et al. (2022) · Talanta · doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2022.124200 · Cited by 18
Neurological damages in COVID‐19 patients: Mechanisms and preventive interventions
Sarkar, S., Karmakar, S., Basu, M., Ghosh, P., & Ghosh, M. K. (2023) · MedComm · doi:10.1002/mco2.247 · Cited by 17
Lee, Y. J., Tarke, A., & Grifoni, A. (2024) · Oxford Open Immunology · doi:10.1093/oxfimm/iqae014 · Cited by 20
Self-citationSARS-CoV-2 Seroprevalence in Healthcare Workers in Germany: A Follow-Up Study
Korth, J., Wilde, B., Dolff, S., Frisch, J., Jahn, M., Krawczyk, A., Trilling, M., Schipper, L., Cordes, S., Ross, B., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18094540 · Cited by 17
“The longitudinal course of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in HCW after infection was similar to that reported for other patients [25].”
ResultPerioperative Coronavirus Vaccination—Timing and Implications: A Guidance Document
Merritt-Genore, H., Moosdorf, R., Gillaspie, E. A., Lother, S., Engelman, D. T., Ahmed, S., Baciewicz, F. A., Grant, M. C., Milewski, R. C. K., Cawcutt, K. A., et al. (2021) · The Annals of Thoracic Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.athoracsur.2021.07.016 · Cited by 18
“Seroreversion and length of natural immunity appears to be related to the severity of illness, with a more robust antibody presence in patients who were most ill, whereas up to 5% to 10% of individuals do not develop IgG antibodies after known infection.(54-58) Infection with SARS-CoV-2 produces antibodies against spe…”
The Immunology of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Vaccines in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients
Dęborska−Materkowska, D., & Kamińska, D. (2021) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v13091879 · Cited by 17
“Moreover, the number of spike-specific memory B cells actually increased with time after symptom onset, whereas SARS-CoV-2specific CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells declined, with a half-life of 3-5 months [57].”
BackgroundInfluentialRecovery of Memory B-cell Subsets and Persistence of Antibodies in Convalescent COVID-19 Patients
Rajamanickam, A., Kumar, N. P., Nancy, A., Selvaraj, N., Munisankar, S., Renji, R. M., Vijayalakshmi, V., Murhekar, M. V., Thangaraj, J. W. V., Kumar, M. S., et al. (2021) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.21-0883 · Cited by 17
“5) 3 (10) 2 (7) 3 (8) Vomit, n (%) 3 (7) 4 (12) 5 (13) 4 (13) 3 (10) 5 (16) 3 (8) Diarrhea, n (%) 10 (23) 5 (15) 4 (11) 4 (13) 6 (30) 5 (16) 2 (6) Seizures, n (%) 0 1 (3) 0 0 0 0 0 Hypertension, n (%) 11 (26) 7 (21) 7 (18) 7 (23) 9 (30) 9 (28) 8 (22) Diabetes, n (%) 8 (19) 7 (21) 11 (30) 9 (29) 11 (37) 8 (25) 7 (19) A…”
Haslbauer, J. D., Zinner, C., Stalder, A. K., Schneeberger, J., Menter, T., Bassetti, S., Mertz, K. D., Went, P., Matter, M. S., & Tzankov, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.763098 · Cited by 17
“Taken together, these features suggest extensive dysregulation in antigen presentation and B-cell activation and response in severe disease, both essential for the development of long-term immunity (10, 11).”
BackgroundHansen, F., Meade-White, K. D., Clancy, C. S., Rosenke, R., Okumura, A., Hawman, D. W., Feldmann, F., Kaza, B., Jarvis, M. A., Rosenke, K., et al. (2022) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110515 · Cited by 16
Pérez‐Olmeda, M., Saugar, J. M., Fernández-García, A., Pérez‐Gómez, B., Pollán, M., Avellón, A., Pastor‐Barriuso, R., de Larrea, N. F., Martín, M., Cruz, I., et al. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Virology · doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2022.105130 · Cited by 18
High SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in Karaganda, Kazakhstan before the launch of COVID-19 vaccination
Kadyrova, I., Yegorov, S., Negmetzhanov, B., Kolesnikova, Y. A., Kolesnichenko, S. I., Korshukov, I., Akhmaltdinova, L., Vazenmiller, D., Stupina, Y., Амирбековна, К. Н., et al. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272008 · Cited by 17
T cells in SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination
Young, A. (2022) · Therapeutic Advances in Vaccines and Immunotherapy · doi:10.1177/25151355221115011 · Cited by 16
Can live-attenuated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine contribute to stopping the pandemic?
Tang, P. C. H., Ng, W. H., King, N. J. C., & Mahalingam, S. (2022) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1010821 · Cited by 18
“Dan and colleagues followed antigen-specific antibodies, memory B cells, CD4 T cells, and CD8 T cells up to 8 months after recovery from COVID19 [11], but a more recent study has shown sustained T and B cell responses over a year after infection [12].”
BackgroundInfluentialRuiz, M. J., Siracusano, G., Cottignies-Calamarte, A., Tudor, D., Real, F., Zhu, A., Pastori, C., Capron, C., Rosenberg, A. R., Temperton, N. J., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.842468 · Cited by 21
“In agreement with our data, the development of circulating B-cell memory to SARSCoV-2 was robust and likely long-lasting (19).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialUnaltered T cell responses to common antigens in individuals with Parkinson's disease
Williams, G. P., Muskat, K., Frazier, A., Xu, Y., Mateus, J., Grifoni, A., Antunes, R. D. S., Weiskopf, D., Amara, A. W., Standaert, D. G., et al. (2022) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2022.120510 · Cited by 17
“20 (2-28) UPDRS Part III (mean, SD): Total N/A 18.”
BackgroundSelf-citationClonal diversity predicts persistence of SARS-CoV-2 epitope-specific T-cell response
Zornikova, K. V., Khmelevskaya, A. A., Sheetikov, S. A., Kiryukhin, D. O., Shcherbakova, O. V., Titov, A., Zvyagin, I. V., & Efimov, G. A. (2022) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-022-04250-7 · Cited by 17
“It has been shown that SARS-CoV-2-speci fi c memory B cells 6 – 10 and T cells are maintained in COVID-19 convalescent patients at least for 6 – 8 months 4,6,11,12 , and the latest reports further extend this margin to up to 10 – 15 months 10,13 .”
Human lung organoid modelling of tissue-resident antiviral T cell responses
Rathkey, J. K., Choi, S. S., van Unen, V., Zhang, H., Liu, M., Ding, J., Alwahabi, S., Santos, A. J. M., Mallajosyula, V. V. A., Chan, J. E., et al. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-026-11114-1 · Cited by 17
Self-citationPaniskaki, K., Konik, M., Anft, M., Heidecke, H., Meister, T. L., Pfaender, S., Krawczyk, A., Zettler, M., Jäger, J., Gaeckler, A., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1196721 · Cited by 17
“In the frame of SARSCoV-2 infection independent groups demonstrated that the majority of long-lived antigen specific CD8 memory T cells present TEMRA phenotype (Dan et al., 2021; Jung et al., 2021; Adamo et al., 2022).”
BackgroundCheng, M.-Q., Li, R., Weng, Z., & Gao, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1275843 · Cited by 17
“While the level of nAb is strongly associated with the protective efficacy of vaccines (75, 76), the massive activation and expansion of antigen-specific CD4 + and CD8 + T cells are also critical for improving the immune duration and immune memory (77, 78).”
BackgroundDurability of immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination
Suthar, M. S. (2024) · Seminars in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.smim.2024.101884 · Cited by 17
Persistence of humoral response upon SARS‐CoV‐2 infection
Knies, A., Ladage, D., Braun, R. J., Kimpel, J., & Schneider, M. (2021) · Reviews in Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/rmv.2272 · Cited by 17
“N and anti‐RBD IgG to be detectable at 34–35 weeks, Dan et al.55 only confirmed positive findings for anti‐”
BackgroundInfluentialMunywoki, P. K., Nasimiyu, C., Alando, M. D., Otieno, N. A., Ombok, C., Njoroge, R., Kikwai, G. K., Odhiambo, D., Osita, M. P., Ouma, A., et al. (2021) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.72914.1 · Cited by 17
Circulation and Evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in India: Let the Data Speak
Limaye, S., Kasibhatla, S. M., Ramtirthkar, M. R., Kinikar, M., Kale, M. M., & Kulkarni‐Kale, U. (2021) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v13112238 · Cited by 18
“receptor interactions but also as a predominant antigenic region with evidence for several monoclonal and polyclonal antibody binding sites, neutralizing sites as well as CD4 and CD8-responsive regions [60,61].”
BackgroundComplexity of immune responses in COVID-19
Mather, M. W., Jardine, L., Talks, B. J., Gardner, L. C. S., & Haniffa, M. A. (2021) · Seminars in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.smim.2021.101545 · Cited by 19
“Initial consensus was driven towards an increased plasmablast subset response in more severe COVID-19 [93], but later studies have demonstrated more overwhelming evidence of an impaired B cell proliferation and”
Özger, Z. B., & Cihan, P. (2021) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2021.108280 · Cited by 17
Cellular therapies for the treatment and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection
Conway, S. R., Keller, M. D., & Bollard, C. M. (2022) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood.2021012249 · Cited by 17
“70%, and the presence of CSTs is associated with recovery and decreased severity of illness.(40-44) Lymphopenia is associated with poorer outcomes in COVID-19, and analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from patients with varying illness severity indicates decreased clonal T-cell expansion, suggesting a subopt…”
Sui, Y., Li, J., Andersen, H., Zhang, R., Prabhu, S. K., Hoang, T. N., Venzon, D. J., Cook, A., Brown, R., Teow, E., et al. (2022) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac091 · Cited by 15
Saliva is suitable for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies detection after vaccination: A rapid systematic review
Guerra, E. N. S., de Castro, V. T., dos Santos, J. A., Acevedo, A. C., & Chardin, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1006040 · Cited by 18
“Germany Middle-age vaccinated BNT (14) 47 ± 10 Anti-S1 IgG (Serum) Anti-S1 neutralizing assay (Serum and saliva) Elderly Vaccinated (r=0.46) in 28d, (r=0.44) in 49d Previous infected (37) 36 ± 11 Middle-age vaccinated (r=0.38) in 28d, (r=0.08) in 49d Previous infected (r=0.66) in 28d, (r=0.59) in 49d Nickel et al., 20…”
BackgroundInfluentialSchultz, M. D., Suschak, J. J., Botta, D., Silva-Sánchez, A., King, R. G., Detchemendy, T. W., Meshram, C. D., Foote, J. B., Zhou, F., Tipper, J. L., et al. (2022) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2022.2127292 · Cited by 16
Ebrahim, F. O., Tabal, S., Lamami, Y., Alhudiri, I. M., Meshri, S. E. E., Dwigen, S. M. A., Arfa, R., Alboeshi, A., Alemam, H. A., Abuhtna, F. A., et al. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10122002 · Cited by 19
“Some reports estimated that antibodies and memory cells against SARS-CoV-2 persist for at least 4–8 months [11].”
BackgroundClaireaux, M. A. F., Elias, G., Kerster, G., Kuijper, L. H., Duurland, M. C., Paul, A., Burger, J. A., Poniman, M., Olijhoek, W., de Jong, N., et al. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.ado1331 · Cited by 20
“This heightened B cell response is associated with increased antibody binding titers to S and RBD, along with augmented neutralization titers, as previously reported in these patients ( 18 , 22 , 26 ) (fig.”
Mucosal immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 vaccination
Paul, M. J., Hudda, M. T., Pallett, S. J. C., Groppelli, E., Boariu, E., Finardi, N. F., Wake, R. M., Sofat, N., Biddle, K., Koushesh, S., et al. (2025) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2025.127175 · Cited by 16
Johannesen, C. K., Rezahosseini, O., Gybel‐Brask, M., Kristensen, J. H., Hasselbalch, R. B., Pries‐Heje, M. M., Nielsen, P. B., Knudsen, A. D., Fogh, K., Norsk, J. B., et al. (2021) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.00904-21 · Cited by 16
Juno, J. A., & Hill, D. L. (2021) · Current Opinion in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.coi.2021.11.004 · Cited by 17
Urueña, A., Badano, M. N., Baré, P., González, J. E., Vicentín, R., Calli, R., Cañero-Velasco, M. C., Fink, S. B., & Vizzotti, C. (2021) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.11.037 · Cited by 16
Zhang, Y., Guo, X., Li, C., Kou, Z., Lin, L., Yao, M., Pang, B., Zhang, X., Duan, Q., Tian, X., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.821828 · Cited by 16
The (apparent) antibody paradox in COVID-19
Ameratunga, R., Woon, S., Lea, E., Steele, R. H., Lehnert, K., Leung, E. Y., & Brooks, A. E. S. (2022) · Expert Review of Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1080/1744666x.2022.2044797 · Cited by 16
Chopra, A., Chavan, P., Tillu, G. S., Saluja, M., Borse, S., Sarmukaddam, S. B., Chaudhuri, S., Rao, B., Yadav, B., Srikanth, N., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.761655 · Cited by 16
“In case of natural COVID-19 infections it has been observed that the titers of IgG against spike proteinmay last for about 6months, while the immunological memory may last up to 8 months (23, 24).”
BackgroundBhattacharya, M., Sharma, A. R., Dhama, K., Agoramoorthy, G., & Chakraborty, C. (2022) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108766 · Cited by 17
“Therefore, it appears that immune memory against SARS-CoV-2 was partially stable [11,12].”
Eick-Cost, A. A., Ying, S., & Wells, N. Y. (2022) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.8071 · Cited by 17
Ogrič, M., Žigon, P., Podovšovnik, E., Lakota, K., Sodin‐Šemrl, S., Rotar, Ž., & Čučnik, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.876533 · Cited by 15
SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4+ T cell longevity correlates with Th17-like phenotype
Terahara, K., Sato, T., Adachi, Y., Tonouchi, K., Onodera, T., Moriyama, S., Sun, L., Takano, T., Nishiyama, A., Kawana‐Tachikawa, A., et al. (2022) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2022.104959 · Cited by 15
Camacho, J., Giménez, E., Albert, E., Zulaica, J., Álvarez‐Rodríguez, B., Torres, I., Rusu, L., Burgos, J. S., Peiró, S., Vanaclocha, H., et al. (2022) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.28284 · Cited by 17
Qin, S., Huang, H., Xiao, W., Chen, K., He, X., Tang, X., Huang, Z., Zhang, Y., Duan, X., Fan, N., et al. (2023) · Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B · doi:10.1016/j.apsb.2023.01.010 · Cited by 16
“Primary immunization with the mRNAvaccine generates potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies and CD4 þ and CD8 þ T cell responses, ultimately generating memory plasma cells against future infections 43 .”
BackgroundTaucher, C., Lazarus, R., Dellago, H., Maurer, G., Weisova, P., Ramljak, I. C., Dubischar, K. L., Lilja, A., Eder-Lingelbach, S., Hochreiter, R., et al. (2023) · Journal of Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2023.06.022 · Cited by 16
Gómez‐Sánchez, L., Tamayo‐Morales, O., Suárez-Moreno, N., Bermejo-Martín, J. F., Domínguez-Martín, A., Martín-Oterino, J.-Á., Martín‐González, J. I., Calle, D. G., García-García, Á., Lugones‐Sánchez, C., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1236430 · Cited by 21
“SARS-CoV-2 infection presents with multisystemic inflammation and an altered immune response, which could cause deleterious effects on the blood vessels in the short and long term; in turn, this is associated with the severity of the disease and the persistence of symptoms (Zanoli et al., 2017; Dan et al., 2021), whic…”
Delmonte, O. M., Oguz, C., Dobbs, K., Myint‐Hpu, K., Palterer, B., Abers, M. S., Draper, D., Truong, M., Kaplan, I. M., Gittelman, R., et al. (2023) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2023.12.011 · Cited by 17
Horbach, I. S., Azevedo, A. D. S., Schwarcz, W. D., Alves, N. D. S., Dias, B. D. M., Setatino, B. P., Moura, L. D. C., de Souza, A. F., Denani, C. B., da Silva, S. A., et al. (2024) · Diseases · doi:10.3390/diseases12010029 · Cited by 17
Comparative analysis of antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 between asymptomatic and convalescent patients
Dwyer, C. J., Cloud, C. A., Wang, C., Heidt, P., Chakraborty, P., Duke, T., McGue, S. R., Jeffcoat, B., Dunne, J., Johnson, L., et al. (2021) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2021.102489 · Cited by 15
“Similarly, another study showed that IgG to the Spike protein was relatively stable over 6 months and that Spike-specific memory B cells were more abundant at 6 months than at 1 month post symptom onset (Dan et al., 2021).”
Vaccination strategies for a seasonal epidemic: a simple SIR model
Nakamura, G. M., Grammaticos, B., & Badoual, M. (2021) · Open Communications in Nonlinear Mathematical Physics · doi:10.46298/ocnmp.7463 · Cited by 15
“Dan et al [28] concluded that substantial immunological memory is generated after a COVID-19 infection.”
Foley, M. K., Searle, S. D., Ostadgavahi, A. T., Booth, R., Falkenham, A., Falzarano, D., Rubino, S., Francis, M. E., McNeil, M., Richardson, C., et al. (2021) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100975 · Cited by 15
“Longitudinal analyses over 6 to 8 months in recovering SARS-CoV-2 individuals found modest decreases in RBD and entire spike antibodies [36,37].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Dan, J. M., Mateus, J., Kato, Y., Hastie, K. M., Yu, E. D., Faliti, C. E., Grifoni, A., Ramirez, S. I., Haupt, S., Frazier, A., Nakao, C., Rayaprolu, V., Rawlings, S. A., Peters, B., Krammer, F., Simon, V., Saphire, E. O., Smith, D. M., Weiskopf, D., Sette, A., & Crotty, S.
- Affiliations
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology (US)
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dan, Jennifer M.
- Kato, Yu
- Weiskopf, Daniela
- Sette, Alessandro
- Crotty, Shane
- ORCID
- Dan, Jennifer M.
- Mateus, Jose
- Kato, Yu
- Hastie, Kathryn M.
- Yu, Esther Dawen
- Faliti, Caterina E.
- Grifoni, Alba
- Ramirez, Sydney I.
- Haupt, Sonya
- Frazier, April
- Nakao, Catherine
- Rayaprolu, Vamseedhar
- Rawlings, Stephen A.
- Peters, Bjoern
- Krammer, Florian
- Simon, Viviana
- Saphire, Erica Ollmann
- Smith, Davey M.
- Weiskopf, Daniela
- Sette, Alessandro
- Crotty, Shane
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2021-02-05
- Volume
- 371
- Issue
- 6529
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC7919858
- OpenAlex
- W3121008609
- Cited by
- 2,656
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 84 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 218 · 2023: 384 · 2022: 839 · 2021: 972
- FWCI
- 191.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- ImmPort
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Nr. 75N9301900065)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI142742, AI135078, HHSN272201400008C, 75N93019C00051, AI007036, U01 AI141995, AI141995-03, U01 CA260541-01, AI007384)
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-006133)
- Wellcome (INV-006133)
- Mastercard Incorporated (INV-006133)
- JPB Foundation
- Open Philanthropy Project (2020-215611)
- Steven and Alexandra Cohen Foundation
- John and Mary Tu Foundation
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Keywords
- SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 pandemic, immunological memory, memory B cells, CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, adaptive immune response, long-term immunity, reinfection, vaccine efficacy, immune response heterogeneity
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Antibodies, Viral, B-Lymphocytes, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Immunologic Memory, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, United States, CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes, CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes, Young Adult, Antibodies, Neutralizing, Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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