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Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection.
Open accessAbstract
Variable memory: Immune memory against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) helps to determine protection against reinfection, disease risk, and vaccine efficacy. Using 188 human cases across the range of severity of COVID-19, Dan et al. analyzed cross-sectional data describing the dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 memory B cells, CD8 + T cells, and CD4 + T cells for more than 6 months after infection. The authors found a high degree of heterogeneity in the magnitude of adaptive immune responses that persisted into the immune memory phase to the virus. However, immune memory in three immunological compartments remained measurable in greater than 90% of subjects for more than 5 months after infection. Despite the heterogeneity of immune responses, these results show that durable immunity against secondary COVID-19 disease is a possibility for most individuals. Science , this issue p. eabf4063
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In the citing paper
“Memory B cells might contribute to the durability of antibody responses38,39; B cell germinal centre responses and the durability of protective efficacy following CV2CoV vaccination remain to be determined.”
From Optimization of non-coding regions for a non-modified mRNA COVID-19 vaccine (2022) · cites this paper as [39]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Although it is unclear how long protective effects last beyond the first few months after vaccination, some studies suggest that the elicited neutralizing activity is maintained for up to 8 months after the natural infection with SARS-CoV-2 (refs. 41,42).”
From Modeling vaccination rollouts, SARS-CoV-2 variants and the requirement for non-pharmaceutical interventions in Italy (2021) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“The mRNA vaccine clinical trials were not powered to address severe disease, including complications after hospitalization.29,30”
From Association Between mRNA Vaccination and COVID-19 Hospitalization and Disease Severity (2021) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“Data from medium-term follow-up of individuals after infection suggest that T cell responses wane more rapidly than antibody responses80.”
From Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans (2021) · cites this paper as [80]
In the citing paper
“Immunological studies of SARS-CoV-2 infection show that memory B and T cell responses appear to persist for at least 8 months after symptom onset (28, 29).”
From mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“These results are consistent with published observations of convalescent patients with Covid-19 through 8 months after symptom onset.5”
From Antibody Persistence through 6 Months after the Second Dose of mRNA-1273 Vaccine for Covid-19 (2021) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Robust CD4+ and CD8+ T cell memory is induced after COVID-19,22,39, 40, 41 and multiple COVID-19 vaccines elicit CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses.26,42, 43, 44, 45”
From Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the total CD4+ and CD8+ T cell reactivity in infected or vaccinated individuals (2021) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“SARS-CoV-2 infection rapidly elicits nAbs (16, 21–24) that decline, but remain detectable, over several months (25–29).”
From mRNA vaccination boosts cross-variant neutralizing antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“Overall, the accumulating evidence from our study and others22-25 shows that long-term humoral response and vaccine effectiveness in previously infected persons were superior to that in recipients of two doses of vaccine.”
From Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“Several studies on the durability of humoral response in persons who have recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection showed that both IgG and neutralizing antibody levels decrease only modestly at 8 to 10 months after the infection.22,23”
From Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“this measurement does not account for Fc effector functions; Fcγ receptor or complement protein engagement by non-, weakly-, or strongly- neutralizing antibodies that bind the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on the surface of infected cells could confer substantial protection39–41.”
From Resistance of SARS-CoV-2 variants to neutralization by monoclonal and serum-derived polyclonal antibodies (2021) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Although neutralizing antibody titers have not correlated with reduced COVID-19 severity (Dan et al., 2021; Piccoli et al., 2020; Robbiani et al., 2020), SARS-CoV-2 cTfh cell frequencies have been associated with reduced disease severity (Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“However, it should also be noted that circulating SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody titers are relatively low in a substantial fraction of recovered COVID-19 cases (Dan et al., 2021; Robbiani et al., 2020; Wajnberg et al., 2020), indicating that either the neutralizing antibody potency or the serum concentration is suboptimal in this subset.”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Serum antibody titers were poorly predictive of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 CD4+ T cells in a study of 188 COVID-19 cases (Dan et al., 2021).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“In a cohort of 188 cases, memory B cells specific for Spike, RBD, and nucleocapsid were each detectable in 100% of subjects at 6+ months post-infection (Dan et al., 2021).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“data so far indicate that T cell memory, B cell memory, and antibodies are all likely to persist for years in most individuals infected by SARS-CoV-2 (Dan et al., 2021; Gaebler et al., 2020; Wajnberg et al., 2020; Zuo et al., 2020a).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Antibody titers were not a surrogate indicator of the magnitude of memory T cells (Dan et al., 2021), suggesting that simple antibody serodiagnostic tests will not be a robust indicator of protective immunity in people previously infected with SARS-CoV-2.”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“A previous study24 showed a decrease in neutralising antibody titres over the first 8 months of infection, with a half-life of around 3–4 months”
From Neutralising antibody titres as predictors of protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants and the impact of boosting: a meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [24]
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Del Valle, D. M., Kim-Schulze, S., Huang, H.-H., Beckmann, N. D., Nirenberg, S., Wang, B., Lavin, Y., Swartz, T. H., Madduri, D., Stock, A., et al. (2020) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-020-1051-9 · Cited by 2,605
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- 10.1126/science.abd7728 · DOI · Paper page
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“In our study, subjects who tested positive on May–June 2020 (after the first pandemic wave) showed lowered antibodies levels 5 months later (October–mid-November 2020), and about 10% of previously positive subjects sero-reverted in the same time frame, according to results from other studies [34,37].”
BackgroundResultThe role of T‐cell immunity in COVID‐19 severity amongst people living with type II diabetes
Tong, Z. W. M., Grant, E. J., Gras, S., Wu, M., Smith, C., Barrett, H. L., Gallo, L. A., & Short, K. R. (2021) · FEBS Journal · doi:10.1111/febs.16105 · Cited by 23
Modeling the Impact of COVID-19 Vaccination in Lebanon: A Call to Speed-Up Vaccine Roll Out
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“We assumed that both natural and vaccineinduced immunity last for one year, as suggested by available data [21-24].”
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“Notably, anti-S-specific memory B-cell frequency and somatic hypermutation increase for up to 6 months despite declining nAb titers [49,50,54–56].”
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“155145 70%–90% of adults with COVID-19 have detectable CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses 1 month after symptom onset (17), which is remarkably similar to what we found in children.”
Self-citationZabalza, A., Arrambide, G., Tagliani, P., Cárdenas‐Robledo, S., Otero‐Romero, S., Esperalba, J., Fernández‐Naval, C., Campuzano, J. T., Martínez‐Gallo, M., Castillo, M., et al. (2022) · Neurology Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1212/nxi.0000000000001143 · Cited by 22
“Humoral and cellular responses against SARS-CoV-2 are detected within a few days of COVID-19 onset to up to 12 months.(32,33) We were able to detect both of them up to 13.”
BackgroundAljabr, W. A., Al-Amari, A., Abbas, B., Karkashan, A., Alamri, S. S., Alnamnakani, M., & Alqahtani, A. (2022) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.00845-21 · Cited by 27
“The duration of immunological memory and whether it can provide protective immunity are still uncertain (9, 15).”
BackgroundDykema, A. G., Zhang, B., Woldemeskel, B. A., Garliss, C. C., Rashid, R., Westlake, T., Zhang, L., Zhang, J., Cheung, L. S., Caushi, J. X., et al. (2022) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104048 · Cited by 23
Addressing COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy
Kassianos, G. C., Puig‐Barberà, J., Dinse, H., Teufel, M., Türeci, Ö., & Pather, S. (2022) · Drugs in Context · doi:10.7573/dic.2021-12-3 · Cited by 22
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Epidemiological assessment of SARS-CoV-2 reinfection
Almadhi, M. A., Alsayyad, A., Conroy, R. M., Atkin, S. L., AlAwadhi, A. I., Al‐Tawfiq, J. A., & AlQahtani, M. (2022) · International Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2022.07.075 · Cited by 23
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“Interval (in days) between 2 doses: median [IQR] (range) 28 [28-74] (21-84) 28 [28-47.”
BackgroundInfluentialSARS-CoV-2 infection and immune responses
Harne, R., Williams, B., Abdelaal, H. F. M., Baldwin, S. L., & Coler, R. N. (2023) · AIMS Microbiology · doi:10.3934/microbiol.2023015 · Cited by 21
“It was observed that SARS-CoV-2 infection exhibited a high degree of heterogeneity within all the three arms of the adaptive immune response, including memory B cells, CD8+ T cells and CD4+ T cells amongst more than 90% of COVID-19 patients [123].”
BackgroundVrantsidis, D. M., van de Wouw, M., Hall, E. R. M., Kuret, V., Rioux, C., Conrad, M. L., Mesa, C., Harris, A., Lebel, C. A., Tomfohr‐Madsen, L. M., et al. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.43697 · Cited by 23
ABO blood group is involved in the quality of the specific immune response anti-SARS-CoV-2
Gil-Manso, S., Blanco, I. M., Motyka, B., Halpin, A., López-Esteban, R., Pérez-Fernández, V. A., Carbonell, D., López-Fernández, L. A., West, L. J., Correa‐Rocha, R., et al. (2021) · Virulence · doi:10.1080/21505594.2021.2019959 · Cited by 27
“However, we also observed a decreased frequency of individuals with SARS-CoV-2-specific responses against the S or N viral proteins with the time passed since the infection, as had already been observed in other studies [28,29].”
ResultPaschold, L., Klee, B., Gottschick, C., Willscher, E., Diexer, S., Schultheiß, C., Simnica, D., Sedding, D., Girndt, M., Gekle, M., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.876306 · Cited by 21
“Given the over-time decay in antibody titers both after infection and vaccination (16, 17, 20, 25-28), we included only participants in this analysis who donated blood in a standard interval of 2-4 weeks after the last vaccination dose.”
BackgroundMethodLaing, E. D., Epsi, N. J., Richard, S. A., Samuels, E. C., Wang, W., Vassell, R. A., Ewing, D. F., Herrup, R., Sterling, S. L., Lindholm, D. A., et al. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.04.27.21256207 · Cited by 20
Bergamo and Covid-19: How the Dark Can Turn to Light
Perico, N., FAGIUOLI, S., Marco, F. D., Laghi, A., Cosentini, R., Rizzo, M., Gianatti, A., Rambaldi, A., Ruggenenti, P. L., Vecchia, C. L., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2021.609440 · Cited by 22
“In some cases, it has been reported that circulating antibody titers declined 4 months after symptom onset, especially in mild cases (29–31); others exhibited relatively stable anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies at 4 months (32) or over more than 6months (33) after onset of initial COVID-19 symptoms.”
BackgroundChallenges and Issues of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines
Blumental, S., & Debré, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2021.664179 · Cited by 22
“The observation that in primates a primary infection protects against reinfection (18) gave additional arguments to assume the efficacy of a vaccine, as did the evidence from laboratory assays of a human functional immune memory persisting months after infection (11, 19).”
BackgroundResultInfluenza Virus and SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines
Sandor, A., Sturdivant, M. S., & Ting, J. P. ‐. (2021) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.2001287 · Cited by 23
Moradi, G., Bolbanabad, A. M., Ahmadi, S., Aghaei, A., Bahrami, F., Veysi, A., Kalmarzi, R. N., Shokri, A., Ghaderi, E., Mohsenpour, B., et al. (2021) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107893 · Cited by 22
Beyond the new normal: Assessing the feasibility of vaccine-based suppression of SARS-CoV-2
Stoddard, M., Sarkar, S., Lin, Y., Nolan, R. P., White, D. E., White, L. F., Hochberg, N. S., & Chakravarty, A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254734 · Cited by 21
“Waning natural immunity, originally proposed as a potential risk for SARS-CoV-2 based on the behavior of other coronaviruses [12, 13] has now been demonstrated for cellular [14] as well as humoral [4, 15] immunity in response to COVID-19.”
BackgroundAffinity Tag Coating Enables Reliable Detection of Antigen-Specific B Cells in Immunospot Assays
Köppert, S., Wolf, C., Becza, N., Sautto, G. A., Franke, F., Küerten, S., Ross, T. M., Lehmann, P., & Kirchenbaum, G. A. (2021) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells10081843 · Cited by 19
“While technically complex, this strategy has been implemented successfully for the study of memory B-cell reactivity against targets such as influenza hemagglutinin [30], HIV envelope [31] and most recently the SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid proteins [24,32,33].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRamasamy, R. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22157919 · Cited by 22
Tadmor, T., Benjamini, O., Braester, A., Rahav, G., & Rokach, L. (2021) · Leukemia · doi:10.1038/s41375-021-01380-5 · Cited by 21
“Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 has been assessed and reported longitudinally with a follow-up of 8 months after infection, indicating a continuous decay of IgG levels in the plasma of convalescents [5].”
BackgroundPersistence of Anti-S Titre among Healthcare Workers Vaccinated with BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19
Coppeta, L., Somma, G., Ferrari, C., Mazza, A., Rizza, S., Aurilio, M. T., Perrone, S., Magrini, A., & Pietroiusti, A. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9090947 · Cited by 21
Long-Term Elevated Inflammatory Protein Levels in Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infected Individuals
Tserel, L., Jõgi, P., Naaber, P., Maslovskaja, J., Häling, A., Salumets, A., Žusinaite, E., Soeorg, H., Lättekivi, F., Ingerainen, D., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.709759 · Cited by 22
“In a study with more than 200 individuals, S-RBD IgG titers were found relatively stable, though the moderate decline in antibodies was seen in over 8 months (7).”
BackgroundDynamics of COVID-19 pandemic in India and Pakistan: A metapopulation modelling approach
Brozak, S. J., Pant, B., Safdar, S., & Gumel, A. B. (2021) · Infectious Disease Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.idm.2021.10.001 · Cited by 22
“Although there is currently limited evidence regarding the duration of infection-acquired immunity, Dan et al. (Dan et al., 2021) recently estimated that natural immunity due to recovery from COVID-19 could last up to eight months.”
Melgoza-González, E. A., Hinojosa‐Trujillo, D., Reséndiz‐Sandoval, M., Mata‐Haro, V., Hernández‐Valenzuela, S., García‐Vega, M., Bravo‐Parra, M., Arvizu-Flores, A. A., Valenzuela, O., Velázquez, E., et al. (2021) · Transboundary and Emerging Diseases · doi:10.1111/tbed.14344 · Cited by 20
Oliveira-Silva, J., Reis, T., Lopes, C., Batista-Silva, R., Ribeiro, R. J. T., Marques, G., Pacheco, V., Rodrigues, T., Afonso, A., Pinheiro, V. C. A., et al. (2021) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.12.014 · Cited by 23
Haralambieva, I. H., Monroe, J. M., Ovsyannikova, I. G., Grill, D. E., Poland, G. A., & Kennedy, R. B. (2022) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiac042 · Cited by 21
“[1-6] Antigen-specific MBCs, in particular, are one of the hallmarks of humoral immune memory, and provide a robust secondary immune response upon antigen re-encounter and/or re-infection.”
InfluentialSala, L. L., Gandini, S., Bruno, A., Allevi, R., Gallazzi, M., Senesi, P., Palano, M. T., Meregalli, P., Longhi, E., Sommese, C., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.798813 · Cited by 23
Bayesian Inference of State-Level COVID-19 Basic Reproduction Numbers across the United States
Mallela, A., Neumann, J., Miller, E. F., Chen, Y., Posner, R. G., Lin, Y. T., & Hlavacek, W. S. (2022) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v14010157 · Cited by 21
“Immunity is acquired not only through vaccination but also through infection [6], and case detection is imperfect.”
BackgroundLong-Lived Immunity in SARS-CoV-2-Recovered Children and Its Neutralizing Capacity Against Omicron
Sieber, J., Mayer, M., Schmidthaler, K., Kopanja, S., Camp, J. V., Popovitsch, A., Dwivedi, V., Hoz, J., Schoof, A., Weseslindtner, L., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.882456 · Cited by 21
“In contrast, nucleocapsidspecific antibodies decreased to undetectable levels in around onefourth of the children, which confirms previous findings (10, 13) and is consistent with the longer half-life of spike-specific compared with nucleocapsid-specific IgG responses (44).”
ResultFirst Description of Serological Evidence for SARS-CoV-2 in Lactating Cows
Fiorito, F., Iovane, V., Pagnini, U., Cerracchio, C., Brandi, S., Levante, M., Marati, L., Ferrara, G., Tammaro, V., Carlo, E. D., et al. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12111459 · Cited by 21
Das, S. R., Singh, J., Shaman, H., Singh, B., Anantharaj, A., Patil, S., Pandey, R., Lodha, R., Pandey, A. K., & Medigeshi, G. R. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-31170-1 · Cited by 21
Weskamm, L. M., Dahlke, C., & Addo, M. M. (2022) · STAR Protocols · doi:10.1016/j.xpro.2022.101902 · Cited by 20
“For example, Dan et al.(7) analyzed frequencies of IgM, IgG and IgA MBCs for up to 8 months after SARS-CoV-2 infection.”
Impact of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination on systemic immune responses in people living with HIV
Bessen, C., Plaza‐Sirvent, C., Simsek, A., Bhat, J., Marheinecke, C. S., Urlaub, D., Bonowitz, P., Buße, S., Schumann, S., Blanco, E. V., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1049070 · Cited by 23
Yang, G., Wang, J., Sun, P., Qin, J., Yang, X., Chen, D., Zhang, Y., Zhong, N. S., & Wang, Z. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1146196 · Cited by 23
“In studies using AIM assay to detect SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells, there is wide variation in the activation markers chosen, with commonly used markers including CD154 (CD40L)+CD137+ OX40+ for CD4+ T cells and CD69+CD137+ for CD8+ T cells (11, 13, 27, 69).”
MethodA potential bivalent mRNA vaccine candidate protects against both RSV and SARS-CoV-2 infections
Wu, N., Zhang, J., Shen, Y., Zhang, X., Zhou, J., Wu, Y., Li, E., Meng, X., Chuai, X., Chiu, S., et al. (2024) · Molecular Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2024.02.011 · Cited by 22
Livieratos, A., Gogos, C. A., & Akinosoglou, K. (2024) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v16050685 · Cited by 23
“Research has indicated prolonged virus-specific cellular immunity in previously infected individuals, persisting for up to 8 months post-infection [4,13–15].”
BackgroundPapayanni, P. G., Chasiotis, D., Koukoulias, K., Georgakopoulou, A., Iatrou, A., Gavriilaki, E., Giannaki, C., Bitzani, M., Geka, E., Tasioudis, P., et al. (2021) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciab371 · Cited by 21
“Herein, further supporting recent findings [21], we demonstrate that the majority of donors maintained CoV-2-ST responses for ≥ 8 months postinfection, suggesting that this branch of immunity is not compromised, whereas decreasing antibodies in the same donors implicated a rather short-lived…”
Chandrashekar, A., Liu, J., Yu, J., McMahan, K., Tostanoski, L. H., Jacob-Dolan, C., Mercado, N. B., Anioke, T., Chang, A., Gardner, S., et al. (2021) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abj2641 · Cited by 22
Favà, A., Donadeu, L., Jouvé, T., González‐Costello, J., Lladó, L., Santana, C., Toapanta, N., Comabella, M., Pernin, V., Facundo, C., et al. (2022) · Kidney International · doi:10.1016/j.kint.2021.12.029 · Cited by 21
“On the other hand, a long-lasting protective immunity, both serological and cellular, has also been reported among convalescent COVID-19 patients from the general population between 5 and 8 months after infection.(17) In the setting of SOT, however, scarce information has been reported regarding the degree, durability…”
Kyei-Barffour, I., Akwetey, S. A., Aninagyei, E., Ghartey‐Kwansah, G., & Acheampong, D. O. (2021) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112282 · Cited by 21
Mucosal Immunity against SARS-CoV-2 in the Respiratory Tract
Noh, H. E., & Rha, M. (2024) · Pathogens · doi:10.3390/pathogens13020113 · Cited by 21
“Previous studies have shown that virus-specific memory T cells are long-lasting after recovery from viral infection [43,44].”
Focosi, D., & Franchini, M. (2021) · European Journal Of Haematology · doi:10.1111/ejh.13630 · Cited by 20
Phenotypes and Functions of SARS-CoV-2-Reactive T Cells
Jung, M. K., & Shin, E. (2021) · Molecules and Cells · doi:10.14348/molcells.2021.0079 · Cited by 19
“Recent studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell responses are maintained up to 6-8 months following infection (Jung et al., 2021; Zuo et al., 2021), though another study reported that SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell responses decline with a half-life of 3-5 months (Dan et al., 2021).”
ResultHeterologous humoral immunity to human and zoonotic coronaviruses: Aiming for the achilles heel
Ng, K. W., Faulkner, N., Wrobel, A. G., Gamblin, S. J., & Kassiotis, G. (2021) · Seminars in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.smim.2021.101507 · Cited by 19
Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 is essential for sustaining durable antibody responses
Lightman, S. M., Peresie, J., Carlson, L. M., Holling, G. A., Honikel, M. M., Chavel, C. A., Nemeth, M. J., Olejniczak, S. H., & Lee, K. P. (2021) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2021.10.005 · Cited by 23
Impact of Chronic HIV Infection on SARS-CoV-2 Infection, COVID-19 Disease and Vaccines
Yang, Y., & Iwasaki, A. (2021) · Current HIV/AIDS Reports · doi:10.1007/s11904-021-00590-x · Cited by 42
Persistence of T Cell and Antibody Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Up to 9 Months after Symptom Onset
Law, J. C., Girard, M., Chao, G. Y. C., Ward, L. A., Isho, B., Rathod, B., Colwill, K., Li, Z., Rini, J. M., Yue, F. Y., et al. (2021) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.2100727 · Cited by 23
“more rapid decay of anti-RBD responses, as well as the more transient IgA and IgM responses, are similar to results reported in earlier studies (12, 22, 34).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialByazrova, M. G., Kulemzin, S. V., Astakhova, E. A., Николаевна, Б. Т., Efimov, G. A., Chikaev, A. N., Kolotygin, I. O., Gorchakov, A. A., Taranin, A. V., & Filatov, A. V. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.840707 · Cited by 19
Peter, L., Wendering, D. J., Schlickeiser, S., Hoffmann, H., Noster, R., Wagner, D. L., Zarrinrad, G., Münch, S., Picht, S., Schulenberg, S., et al. (2022) · Molecular Therapy — Methods & Clinical Development · doi:10.1016/j.omtm.2022.02.012 · Cited by 19
Humoral Immunogenicity of the mRNA-1273 Vaccine in the Phase 3 Coronavirus Efficacy (COVE) Trial
Sahly, H. M. E., Baden, L. R., Essink, B. J., Montefiori, D. C., McDermont, A., Rupp, R. E., Lewis, M., Swaminathan, S., Griffin, C., Fragoso, V. G., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiac188 · Cited by 21
“These observations support an immune-booster effect in persons previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 [26], consistent with studies showing that vaccinating previously SARS-CoV-2–infected individuals is associated with increased antibody responses and disease protection after 1 vaccine dose [29–33].”
ResultTissue immunity to SARS‐CoV‐2: Role in protection and immunopathology*
Rybkina, K., Davis‐Porada, J., & Färber, D. L. (2022) · Immunological Reviews · doi:10.1111/imr.13112 · Cited by 19
Yap, J. M., Ueda, T., Kanemitsu, Y., Takeda, N., Fukumitsu, K., Fukuda, S., Uemura, T., Tajiri, T., Ohkubo, H., Maeno, K., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.921728 · Cited by 20
“Immune memory has been initially described in acquired immune systems (1), but increasing evidence indicates that innate immunological memory also exists in immune cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages (2).”
BackgroundLong-Term Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2 in Children
Dunay, G. A., Barroso, M., Woidy, M., Danecka, M. K., Engels, G., Hermann, K., Neumann, F. S., Paul, K., Beime, J., Escherich, G., et al. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1007/s10875-022-01355-w · Cited by 24
“A detailed immunological follow-up of adults [46] after SARS-CoV-2 infection showed similar results 6 to 8 months PSO.”
ResultTrakarnvanich, T., Ngamvichchukorn, T., Phumisantiphong, U., Pholtawornkulchai, K., Phochanasomboon, K., & Manomaipiboon, A. (2022) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.09.067 · Cited by 20
“Related reports of vaccination among patients with CKD mainly considered mRNA vaccines [8,7].”
BackgroundImmune response induced by novel coronavirus infection
Sun, Y., Zou, Y., Wang, H., Cui, G., Yu, Z., & Ren, Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2022.988604 · Cited by 20
Fogh, K., Larsen, T. G., Hansen, C. B., Hasselbalch, R. B., Eriksen, A. R. R., Bundgaard, H., Frikke‐Schmidt, R., Hilsted, L. M., Østergaard, L. J., Johansen, I. S., et al. (2022) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.02537-22 · Cited by 20
“Studies have shown long persistent humoral responses with detectable levels of IgG antibodies recognizing the N protein or the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the S protein at 8 months (15) and up to 12 months after symptom onset (16).”
BackgroundWang, C., Yang, S., Duan, L., Du, X., Tao, J., Wang, Y., Yang, J., Lv, Y., Li, J., Zhang, C., et al. (2022) · Virology Journal · doi:10.1186/s12985-022-01957-1 · Cited by 19
“In agreement with previous studies [27, 28], we detected AIM+CD4+T and CD8+T cells in 6% and 10% of unvaccinated individuals, respectively, which may be attributed to cross-reactive T cells that were probably generated during previous encounters with seasonal coronaviruses.”
BackgroundResultAlam, M. S. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13285 · Cited by 22
Rabadán, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009090063 · Cited by 20
Mechanistic understanding of innate and adaptive immune responses in SARS-CoV-2 infection
Balkhi, M. Y. (2021) · Molecular Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2021.04.021 · Cited by 24
“SARS-CoV-2 protein specific CD4 and CD8 T memory cells were also detected, however, in contrast with memory B cells, their number declined ~50 % within 6–8 months (Dan et al., 2021), which is”
BackgroundResultDiks, A. M., Overduin, L. A., van Leenen, L. D., Slobbe, L., Jolink, H., Visser, L. G., van Dongen, J. J. M., & Berkowska, M. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.690328 · Cited by 21
Neeland, M. R., Bannister, S., Clifford, V., Nguyen, J., Dohle, K., Overmars, I., Toh, Z. Q., Anderson, J., Donato, C. M., Sarkar, S., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.741639 · Cited by 20
“SARS-CoV-2 specific CD4 T cells, however, were primarily of TCM or TEM phenotype (33).”
BackgroundTunheim, G., Rø, G., Tran, T. T., Kran, A. B., Andersen, J. T., Vaage, E. B., Kolderup, A., Vaage, J. T., Lund‐Johansen, F., & Hungnes, O. (2021) · Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses · doi:10.1111/irv.12932 · Cited by 19
“Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 can be detected at least 8 months after infection, but the levels have been shown to decrease over time.(33) Particularly, antibodies against the nucleocapsid protein wane faster than antibodies against the spike and RBD proteins.”
BackgroundChoteau, M., Scohy, A., Messe, S., Luyckx, M., Dechamps, M., Montiel, V., Yombi, J. C., Gruson, D., Limaye, N., Michiels, T., et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-06038-5 · Cited by 19
SARS-CoV-2 inflammation durably imprints memory CD4 T cells
Gray-Gaillard, S. L., Solis, S., Chen, H. M., Monteiro, C., Ciabattoni, G. O., Samanovic, M. I., Cornelius, A. R., Williams, T., Geesey, E., Rodriguez, M., et al. (2024) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.adj8526 · Cited by 22
Liu, C., Tsang, T. K., Sullivan, S. G., Cowling, B. J., & Yang, B. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-60024-9 · Cited by 19
Angelis, M. L. D., Francescangeli, F., Rossi, R., Giuliani, A., Maria, R. D., & Zeuner, A. (2021) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v13060961 · Cited by 17
“In fact, SARS-CoV-2–specific CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells are associated with less COVID-19 disease severity during an ongoing SARS-CoV-2 infection [65,79].”
BackgroundEfrati, S., Catalogna, M., Hamad, R. A., Hadanny, A., Bar‐Chaim, A., Benveniste‐Levkovitz, P., & Levtzion‐Korach, O. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-96129-6 · Cited by 19
Persistence of immunity to SARS-CoV-2 over time in the ski resort Ischgl
Borena, W., Bánki, Z., Bates, K., Winner, H., Riepler, L., Rössler, A., Pipperger, L., Theurl, I., Falkensammer, B., Ulmer, H., et al. (2021) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103534 · Cited by 18
Fraley, E., LeMaster, C., Khanal, S., Banerjee, D., Pastinen, T., Grundberg, E., Selvarangan, R., & Bradley, T. (2021) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciab850 · Cited by 18
Antibody Dynamics and Durability in Coronavirus Disease-19
Zuiani, A., & Wesemann, D. R. (2021) · Clinics in Laboratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.cll.2021.10.004 · Cited by 19
“Indeed, several studies show a subset of COVID-19 convalescent subjects dropping below the limit of detection for neutralizing antibody as early as 3-months postinfection, while overall seropositivity is almost universally retained.(20,50,51,55,57) A caveat to these results is that surveys of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing a…”
Peluso, M. J., Donatelli, J. L., & Henrich, T. J. (2021) · Translational research · doi:10.1016/j.trsl.2021.11.006 · Cited by 18
Persistence of SARS-CoV-2-Specific Antibodies for 13 Months after Infection
Kučinskaitė-Kodzė, I., Simanavičius, M., Šimaitis, A., & Žvirblienė, A. (2021) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v13112313 · Cited by 19
“To date, both sero-epidemiological and targeted cohort studies from different countries have reported detectable levels of virus-specific antibodies and duration of the protective immune response from 3 to 13 months after infection [6,7,10,12,13,17,19,21,24,25].”
BackgroundResultAssessment of SARS-CoV-2 Immunity in Convalescent Children and Adolescents
Tsang, H. W., Chua, G. T., To, K. K., Wong, J. S. C., Tu, W., Kwok, J., Wong, W. H. S., Wang, X., Zhang, Y., Duque, J. S. R., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.797919 · Cited by 20
“This T cell memory is capable of being reactivated in patients with mild symptoms up to 8 months after recovery (29, 30).”
BackgroundResultWolszczak-Biedrzycka, B., Bieńkowska, A., & Dorf, J. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9121508 · Cited by 20
Vo, H. T. M., Maestri, A., Auerswald, H., Sorn, S., Lay, S., Seng, H., Sann, S., Ya, N., Pean, P., Dussart, P., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.817905 · Cited by 19
“Titers of neutralizing antibodies are reported to reach their maximum within the first month after infection and then decay, but mostly remain detectable six months and even up to one year after infection (4, 12).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialXue, J.-H., Wang, Y.-J., Li, W., Li, Q.-L., Xu, Q.-Y., Niu, J.-J., & Liu, L.-L. (2022) · Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine · doi:10.5858/arpa.2022-0041-sa · Cited by 19
An efficient immunoassay for the B cell help function of SARS-CoV-2-specific memory CD4+ T cells
Ansari, A., Sachan, S., Jit, B. P., Sharma, A. K., Coshic, P., Sette, A., Weiskopf, D., & Gupta, N. (2022) · Cell Reports Methods · doi:10.1016/j.crmeth.2022.100224 · Cited by 19
“Others and we have shown that immune memory in terms of CD4+ T cells and B cells is persistent after several months in COVID-19 recovered subjects (Ansari et al., 2021; Cohen et al., 2021; Dan et al., 2021; Rodda et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAntibody and T cell responses to COVID-19 vaccination in patients receiving anticancer therapies
Rouhani, S. J., Yu, J., Olson, D. J., Zha, Y., Pezeshk, A., Cabanov, A., Pyzer, A. R., Trujillo, J., Derman, B. A., O’Donnell, P. H., et al. (2022) · Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer · doi:10.1136/jitc-2022-004766 · Cited by 21
Mise‐Omata, S., Ikeda, M., Takeshita, M., Uwamino, Y., Wakui, M., Arai, T., Yoshifuji, A., Murano, K., Siomi, H., Nakagawara, K., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.2200525 · Cited by 20
Humoral immunity and B-cell memory in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination
Fryer, H. A., Hartley, G. E., Edwards, E. S. J., O’Hehir, R. E., & van Zelm, M. C. (2022) · Biochemical Society Transactions · doi:10.1042/bst20220415 · Cited by 16
Cinicola, B. L., Mortari, E. P., Zicari, A. M., Agrati, C., Bordoni, V., Albano, C., Fedele, G., Schiavoni, I., Leone, P., Fiore, S., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1094727 · Cited by 20
“Neutralization Wuhan IC50 T0 16 [8-160] 160 [64-256] 8 [8-8] <0.”
Longitudinal transcriptional analysis of peripheral blood leukocytes in COVID-19 convalescent donors
Gedda, M. R., Danaher, P. J., Shao, L., Ongkeko, M., Chen, L., Dinh, A., Sall, M. T., Reddy, O. L., Bailey, C., Wahba, A., et al. (2022) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12967-022-03751-7 · Cited by 19
“Several groups have investigated the course of the antibody response of patients recovering from SARS-CoV-2 infections [14], but little is known about the recovery of transcriptomic changes in this rather protracted postacute period in large cohorts.”
BackgroundSeroepidemiology of the Seasonal Human Coronaviruses NL63, 229E, OC43 and HKU1 in France
Thoisy, A. D., Woudenberg, T., Pelleau, S., Donnadieu, F., García, L., Pinaud, L., Tondeur, L., Meola, A., Arowas, L., Clement, N., et al. (2023) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofad340 · Cited by 17
“This provided critical early insights into the duration of immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and the potential for future reinfection, findings that were subsequently validated [14,15].”
Delay-differential SEIR modeling for improved modelling of infection dynamics
Kiselev, I. N., Akberdin, I. R., & Kolpakov, F. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40008-9 · Cited by 33
“• Waning B and T cell immunity and neutralization activity of specific antibodies 63–66 .”
BackgroundNon-neutralizing functions in anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies
Reinig, S., & Shih, S. (2023) · Biomedical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.bj.2023.100666 · Cited by 22
“The anti-S antibodies exhibit a longer half-life in the serum in the range of 140 – 225 days versus 68 – 71 days for anti-N IgG [38,39].”
BackgroundSARS-CoV-2 spike-specific TFH cells exhibit unique responses in infected and vaccinated individuals
He, R., Zheng, X., Zhang, J., Liu, B., Wang, Q., Wu, Q., Liu, Z., Chang, F., Hu, Y., Xie, T., et al. (2023) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-023-01650-x · Cited by 21
“41 ASCs normally decay within a few weeks, and only a smaller population of long-lived plasma cells can live from several months to years.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialYang, G., Cao, J., Qin, J., Mei, X., Deng, S., Xia, Y., Zhao, J., Wang, J., Luan, T., Chen, D., et al. (2024) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-024-01867-4 · Cited by 20
“12 Moreover, the lack of a clear association between memory immunity and disease severity further complicates the understanding between COVID-19 severity and SARS-CoV-2 reinfection risk.”
BackgroundBean, D. J., Monroe, J., Liang, Y. M., Borberg, E., Senussi, Y., Swank, Z., Chalise, S., Walt, D. R., Weinberg, J., & Sagar, M. (2024) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.ado7588 · Cited by 20
“The magnitude of the immune responses differs on the basis of COVID-19 disease severity, and associations between eCoV incidence and mild versus severe COVID-19 disease may further highlight the potentially protective immune responses ( 63 ).”
BackgroundTsang, T. K., Sullivan, S. G., Huang, X., Wang, C., Wang, Y., Nealon, J., Yang, B., Ainslie, K. E. C., & Cowling, B. J. (2024) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwae142 · Cited by 21
Kostopoulos, I. V., Orologas‐Stavrou, N., Rousakis, P., Panteli, C., Ntanasis‐Stathopoulos, I., Charitaki, I., Korompoki, E., Gavriatopoulou, M., Kastritis, E., Trougakos, I. P., et al. (2021) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms9030546 · Cited by 18
“Although our panel did not include specific B cell markers for an in-depth B cell subset analysis, the statistical significantly increased Th2-type cells during active COVID-19 combined with the reduced total numbers of B cells may imply a skewed ratio towards antibody-secreting effector B cells and maybe to terminall…”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Dan, J. M., Mateus, J., Kato, Y., Hastie, K. M., Yu, E. D., Faliti, C. E., Grifoni, A., Ramirez, S. I., Haupt, S., Frazier, A., Nakao, C., Rayaprolu, V., Rawlings, S. A., Peters, B., Krammer, F., Simon, V., Saphire, E. O., Smith, D. M., Weiskopf, D., Sette, A., & Crotty, S.
- Affiliations
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology (US)
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dan, Jennifer M.
- Kato, Yu
- Weiskopf, Daniela
- Sette, Alessandro
- Crotty, Shane
- ORCID
- Dan, Jennifer M.
- Mateus, Jose
- Kato, Yu
- Hastie, Kathryn M.
- Yu, Esther Dawen
- Faliti, Caterina E.
- Grifoni, Alba
- Ramirez, Sydney I.
- Haupt, Sonya
- Frazier, April
- Nakao, Catherine
- Rayaprolu, Vamseedhar
- Rawlings, Stephen A.
- Peters, Bjoern
- Krammer, Florian
- Simon, Viviana
- Saphire, Erica Ollmann
- Smith, Davey M.
- Weiskopf, Daniela
- Sette, Alessandro
- Crotty, Shane
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2021-02-05
- Volume
- 371
- Issue
- 6529
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC7919858
- OpenAlex
- W3121008609
- Cited by
- 2,656
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 84 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 218 · 2023: 384 · 2022: 839 · 2021: 972
- FWCI
- 191.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- ImmPort
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Nr. 75N9301900065)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI142742, AI135078, HHSN272201400008C, 75N93019C00051, AI007036, U01 AI141995, AI141995-03, U01 CA260541-01, AI007384)
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-006133)
- Wellcome (INV-006133)
- Mastercard Incorporated (INV-006133)
- JPB Foundation
- Open Philanthropy Project (2020-215611)
- Steven and Alexandra Cohen Foundation
- John and Mary Tu Foundation
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Keywords
- SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 pandemic, immunological memory, memory B cells, CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, adaptive immune response, long-term immunity, reinfection, vaccine efficacy, immune response heterogeneity
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Antibodies, Viral, B-Lymphocytes, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Immunologic Memory, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, United States, CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes, CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes, Young Adult, Antibodies, Neutralizing, Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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