Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection.

Dan, Jennifer M.; Mateus, Jose; Kato, Yu; Hastie, Kathryn M.; Yu, Esther Dawen; Faliti, Caterina E.; Grifoni, Alba; Ramirez, Sydney I.; Haupt, Sonya; Frazier, April; Nakao, Catherine; Rayaprolu, Vamseedhar; Rawlings, Stephen A.; Peters, Bjoern; Krammer, Florian; Simon, Viviana; Saphire, Erica Ollmann; Smith, Davey M.; Weiskopf, Daniela; Sette, Alessandro; Crotty, Shane

doi:10.1126/science.abf4063

Cited by 2,656SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 ResearchImmune responses and vaccinationsCOVID-19 Clinical Research Studies

Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection.

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Dan, Jennifer M., Mateus, Jose, Kato, Yu, Hastie, Kathryn M., Yu, Esther Dawen, Faliti, Caterina E., Grifoni, Alba, Ramirez, Sydney I. +13 more·2021·Science

DOI 10.1126/science.abf4063PMC PMC7919858

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Abstract

Variable memory: Immune memory against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) helps to determine protection against reinfection, disease risk, and vaccine efficacy. Using 188 human cases across the range of severity of COVID-19, Dan et al. analyzed cross-sectional data describing the dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 memory B cells, CD8 + T cells, and CD4 + T cells for more than 6 months after infection. The authors found a high degree of heterogeneity in the magnitude of adaptive immune responses that persisted into the immune memory phase to the virus. However, immune memory in three immunological compartments remained measurable in greater than 90% of subjects for more than 5 months after infection. Despite the heterogeneity of immune responses, these results show that durable immunity against secondary COVID-19 disease is a possibility for most individuals. Science , this issue p. eabf4063

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Memory B cells might contribute to the durability of antibody responses.
“Memory B cells might contribute to the durability of antibody responses38,39; B cell germinal centre responses and the durability of protective efficacy following CV2CoV vaccination remain to be determined.”
From Optimization of non-coding regions for a non-modified mRNA COVID-19 vaccine (2022) · cites this paper as [39]
The Concluding remarks report durable Spike IgG titers and persistent memory B cells 5–8 months after infection. They do not establish that memory B cells contribute to the durability of circulating antibody responses; the paper instead describes antibody levels as reflecting production by short- and then long-lived plasma cells. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Some studies suggest that elicited neutralizing activity is maintained for up to 8 months after natural infection with SARS-CoV-2.
“Although it is unclear how long protective effects last beyond the first few months after vaccination, some studies suggest that the elicited neutralizing activity is maintained for up to 8 months after the natural infection with SARS-CoV-2 (refs. 41,42).”
From Modeling vaccination rollouts, SARS-CoV-2 variants and the requirement for non-pharmaceutical interventions in Italy (2021) · cites this paper as [42]
The mRNA vaccine clinical trials were not powered to address severe disease, including complications after hospitalization.
“The mRNA vaccine clinical trials were not powered to address severe disease, including complications after hospitalization.29,30”
From Association Between mRNA Vaccination and COVID-19 Hospitalization and Disease Severity (2021) · cites this paper as [30]
Medium-term follow-up after infection suggests T cell responses decline more rapidly than antibody responses.
“Data from medium-term follow-up of individuals after infection suggest that T cell responses wane more rapidly than antibody responses80.”
From Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans (2021) · cites this paper as [80]
Memory B and T cell responses persist for at least 8 months after SARS-CoV-2 symptom onset.
“Immunological studies of SARS-CoV-2 infection show that memory B and T cell responses appear to persist for at least 8 months after symptom onset (28, 29).”
From mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern (2021) · cites this paper as [28]

The present findings align with previously published observations of convalescent Covid-19 patients followed for up to 8 months after symptom onset.
“These results are consistent with published observations of convalescent patients with Covid-19 through 8 months after symptom onset.5”
From Antibody Persistence through 6 Months after the Second Dose of mRNA-1273 Vaccine for Covid-19 (2021) · cites this paper as [5]
Robust CD4+ and CD8+ T cell memory is induced after COVID-19, and multiple COVID-19 vaccines elicit CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses.
“Robust CD4+ and CD8+ T cell memory is induced after COVID-19,22,39, 40, 41 and multiple COVID-19 vaccines elicit CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses.26,42, 43, 44, 45”
From Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the total CD4+ and CD8+ T cell reactivity in infected or vaccinated individuals (2021) · cites this paper as [39]
SARS-CoV-2 infection rapidly elicits nAbs that decline, but remain detectable, over several months.
“SARS-CoV-2 infection rapidly elicits nAbs (16, 21–24) that decline, but remain detectable, over several months (25–29).”
From mRNA vaccination boosts cross-variant neutralizing antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
Taken together, evidence from this study and others indicates that previously infected people have better long-term humoral response and vaccine effectiveness than recipients of two vaccine doses.
“Overall, the accumulating evidence from our study and others22-25 shows that long-term humoral response and vaccine effectiveness in previously infected persons were superior to that in recipients of two doses of vaccine.”
From Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
In people recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection, several studies found only modest declines in IgG and neutralizing antibody levels at 8 to 10 months after infection.
“Several studies on the durability of humoral response in persons who have recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection showed that both IgG and neutralizing antibody levels decrease only modestly at 8 to 10 months after the infection.22,23”
From Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
Neutralization measurement does not account for Fc effector functions; Fcγ receptor or complement engagement by antibodies could confer protection.
“this measurement does not account for Fc effector functions; Fcγ receptor or complement protein engagement by non-, weakly-, or strongly- neutralizing antibodies that bind the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on the surface of infected cells could confer substantial protection39–41.”
From Resistance of SARS-CoV-2 variants to neutralization by monoclonal and serum-derived polyclonal antibodies (2021) · cites this paper as [41]
Neutralizing antibody titers have not correlated with reduced COVID-19 severity.
“Although neutralizing antibody titers have not correlated with reduced COVID-19 severity (Dan et al., 2021; Piccoli et al., 2020; Robbiani et al., 2020), SARS-CoV-2 cTfh cell frequencies have been associated with reduced disease severity (Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
Circulating SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody titers are relatively low in a substantial fraction of recovered COVID-19 cases.
“However, it should also be noted that circulating SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody titers are relatively low in a substantial fraction of recovered COVID-19 cases (Dan et al., 2021; Robbiani et al., 2020; Wajnberg et al., 2020), indicating that either the neutralizing antibody potency or the serum concentration is suboptimal in this subset.”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
Serum antibody titers were poorly predictive of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 CD4+ T cells in a study of 188 COVID-19 cases.
“Serum antibody titers were poorly predictive of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 CD4+ T cells in a study of 188 COVID-19 cases (Dan et al., 2021).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In a cohort of 188 cases, memory B cells specific for Spike, RBD, and nucleocapsid were each detectable in 100% of subjects at 6+ months post-infection.
“In a cohort of 188 cases, memory B cells specific for Spike, RBD, and nucleocapsid were each detectable in 100% of subjects at 6+ months post-infection (Dan et al., 2021).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
Data so far indicate that T cell memory, B cell memory, and antibodies are all likely to persist for years in most individuals infected by SARS-CoV-2.
“data so far indicate that T cell memory, B cell memory, and antibodies are all likely to persist for years in most individuals infected by SARS-CoV-2 (Dan et al., 2021; Gaebler et al., 2020; Wajnberg et al., 2020; Zuo et al., 2020a).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
Antibody titers were not a surrogate indicator of the magnitude of memory T cells, suggesting that simple antibody serodiagnostic tests will not be a robust indicator of protective immunity in people previously infected with SARS-CoV-2.
“Antibody titers were not a surrogate indicator of the magnitude of memory T cells (Dan et al., 2021), suggesting that simple antibody serodiagnostic tests will not be a robust indicator of protective immunity in people previously infected with SARS-CoV-2.”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
Neutralising antibody titres decrease over the first 8 months of infection, with a half-life of around 3-4 months.
“A previous study24 showed a decrease in neutralising antibody titres over the first 8 months of infection, with a half-life of around 3–4 months”
From Neutralising antibody titres as predictors of protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants and the impact of boosting: a meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [24]

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To, K. K.-W., Hung, I. F.-N., Ip, J. D., Chu, A. W.-H., Chan, W.-M., Tam, A. R., Fong, C. H.-Y., Yuan, S., Tsoi, H.-W., Ng, A. C.-K., et al. (2021) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa1275 · Cited by 746 · see citing works
Early induction of functional SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells associates with rapid viral clearance and mild disease in COVID-19 patients
Tan, A. T., Linster, M., Tan, C. W., Le Bert, N., Chia, W. N., Kunasegaran, K., Zhuang, Y., Tham, C. Y. L., Chia, A., Smith, G. J. D., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.108728 · Cited by 740 · see citing works
Comprehensive mapping of immune perturbations associated with severe COVID-19
Kuri-Cervantes, L., Pampena, M. B., Meng, W., Rosenfeld, A. M., Ittner, C. A. G., Weisman, A. R., Agyekum, R. S., Mathew, D., Baxter, A. E., Vella, L. A., et al. (2020) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abd7114 · Cited by 723 · see citing works
Cutting edge: long-term B cell memory in humans after smallpox vaccination
Crotty, S., Felgner, P., Davies, H., Glidewell, J., Villarreal, L., & Ahmed, R. (2003) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.171.10.4969 · Cited by 695 · see citing works
Self-citation
Functional SARS-CoV-2-Specific Immune Memory Persists after Mild COVID-19
Rodda, L. B., Netland, J., Shehata, L., Pruner, K. B., Morawski, P. A., Thouvenel, C. D., Takehara, K. K., Eggenberger, J., Hemann, E. A., Waterman, H. R., et al. (2021) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.11.029 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
From Vaccines to Memory and Back
Sallusto, F., Lanzavecchia, A., Araki, K., & Ahmed, R. (2010) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2010.10.008 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Tissue-Resident T Cells and Other Resident Leukocytes
Masopust, D., & Soerens, A. G. (2019) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-042617-053214 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Acute SARS-CoV-2 Infection Impairs Dendritic Cell and T Cell Responses
Zhou, R., To, K. K.-W., Wong, Y.-C., Liu, L., Zhou, B., Li, X., Huang, H., Mo, Y., Luk, T.-Y., Lau, T. T.-K., et al. (2020) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2020.07.026 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Origin and differentiation of human memory CD8 T cells after vaccination
Akondy, R. S., Fitch, M., Edupuganti, S., Yang, S., Kissick, H. T., Li, K. W., Youngblood, B. A., Abdelsamed, H. A., McGuire, D. J., Cohen, K. W., et al. (2017) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature24633 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
REGN-COV2 antibodies prevent and treat SARS-CoV-2 infection in rhesus macaques and hamsters
Baum, A., Ajithdoss, D., Copin, R., Zhou, A., Lanza, K., Negron, N., Ni, M., Wei, Y., Mohammadi, K., Musser, B., et al. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abe2402 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Rapid Generation of Neutralizing Antibody Responses in COVID-19 Patients
Suthar, M. S., Zimmerman, M. G., Kauffman, R. C., Mantus, G., Linderman, S. L., Hudson, W. H., Vanderheiden, A., Nyhoff, L., Davis, C. W., Adekunle, O., et al. (2020) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100040 · Cited by 508 · cited 1× · see citing works
“1, C and D), as RBD is the target of most neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 (4, 27, 46, 47).”
Background
Viral presence and immunopathology in patients with lethal COVID-19: a prospective autopsy cohort study
Schurink, B., Roos, E., Radonic, T. R., Barbé, E., Bouman, C. S. C., de Boer, H. H., de Bree, G. J., Bulle, E., Aronica, E., Florquin, S., et al. (2020) · The Lancet Microbe · doi:10.1016/s2666-5247(20)30144-0 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
A strategic approach to COVID-19 vaccine R&D
Corey, L., Mascola, J. R., Fauci, A. S., & Collins, F. S. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abc5312 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
Airway Memory CD4+ T Cells Mediate Protective Immunity against Emerging Respiratory Coronaviruses
Zhao, J., Zhao, J., Mangalam, A. K., Channappanavar, R., Fett, C., Meyerholz, D. K., Agnihothram, S., Baric, R. S., David, C. S., & Perlman, S. (2016) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2016.05.006 · Cited by 496 · see citing works
Simply put: Vaccination saves lives
Orenstein, W. A., & Ahmed, R. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1704507114 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Neutralizing antibodies derived from the B cells of 1918 influenza pandemic survivors
Yu, X., Tsibane, T., McGraw, P. A., House, F. S., Keefer, C. J., Hicar, M. D., Tumpey, T. M., Pappas, C., Perrone, L. A., Martinez, O., et al. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature07231 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Primary exposure to SARS-CoV-2 protects against reinfection in rhesus macaques
Deng, W., Bao, L., Liu, J., Xiao, C., Liu, J., Xue, J., Lv, Q., Qi, F., Gao, H., Yu, P., et al. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abc5343 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Humoral and circulating follicular helper T cell responses in recovered patients with COVID-19
Juno, J. A., Tan, H.-X., Lee, W. S., Reynaldi, A., Kelly, H. G., Wragg, K., Esterbauer, R., Kent, H. E., Batten, C. J., Mordant, F. L., et al. (2020) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0995-0 · Cited by 437 · cited 1× · see citing works
“CCR6 SARS-CoV-2–specific cTFH cells have been associated with reduced COVID-19 disease severity (5) and have been reported to be a major fraction of spike-specific cTFH cells in some studies (5, 50, 58).”
Background
Robust SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell immunity is maintained at 6 months following primary infection
Zuo, J., Dowell, A. C., Pearce, H., Verma, K., Long, H. M., Begum, J., Aiano, F., Amin-Chowdhury, Z., Hoschler, K., Brooks, T., et al. (2021) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41590-021-00902-8 · Cited by 392 · cited 1× · see citing works
“SARS-CoV-2 T cell memory at 6 months has also now been reported in another study (63).”
Neutrophil extracellular traps infiltrate the lung airway, interstitial, and vascular compartments in severe COVID-19
Radermecker, C., Detrembleur, N., Guiot, J., Cavalier, E., Henket, M. A., D'Emal, C., Vanwinge, C., Cataldo, D. D., Oury, C., Delvenne, P., et al. (2020) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20201012 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Lessons for COVID-19 immunity from other coronavirus infections
Sariol, A., & Perlman, S. (2020) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2020.07.005 · Cited by 317 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Neutralizing antibodies have generally not correlated with lessenedCOVID-19disease severity (5, 19,20), which was also observed for Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS), causedbyMERSCoV (21).”
Background
Memory B Cells of Mice and Humans
Weisel, F. J., & Shlomchik, M. J. (2017) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-041015-055531 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Immune life history, vaccination, and the dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 over the next 5 years
Saad-Roy, C. M., Wagner, C. E., Baker, R. E., Morris, S. E., Farrar, J., Graham, A. L., Levin, S. A., Mina, M. J., Metcalf, C. J. E., & Grenfell, B. T. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abd7343 · Cited by 278 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The findings have implications for immunity against secondary COVID-19, and thus the potential future course of the pandemic (41, 42).”
Background
Clinical and pathological investigation of patients with severe COVID-19
Li, S., Jiang, L., Li, X., Lin, F., Wang, Y., Li, B., Jiang, T., An, W., Liu, S., Liu, H., et al. (2020) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.138070 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 T cell immunity: Specificity, function, durability, and role in protection
Altmann, D., & Boyton, R. (2020) · Science immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abd6160 · Cited by 255 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Thus, studying antibody, memory B cell, CD4 T cell, and CD8 T cell memory to SARS-CoV-2 in an integrated manner is likely important for understanding the durability of protective immunity against COVID-19 generated by primary SARS-CoV-2 infection (1, 19, 31).”
Background
Memory B cells, but not long-lived plasma cells, possess antigen specificities for viral escape mutants
Purtha, W. E., Tedder, T. F., Johnson, S., Bhattacharya, D., & Diamond, M. (2011) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20110740 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Immunological memory in humans
Crotty, S., & Ahmed, R. (2004) · Seminars in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.smim.2004.02.008 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Self-citation
COVID-19 and the Path to Immunity
Stephens, D. S., & McElrath, M. J. (2020) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2020.16656 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Vascular Disease and Thrombosis in SARS-CoV-2-Infected Rhesus Macaques
Aid, M., Busman-Sahay, K., Vidal, S. J., Maliga, Z., Bondoc, S., Starke, C., Terry, M., Jacobson, C. A., Wrijil, L., Ducat, S., et al. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.005 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Immunization: vital progress, unfinished agenda
Piot, P., Larson, H. J., O’Brien, K. L., N’kengasong, J., Ng, E., Sow, S., & Kampmann, B. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1656-7 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2-Specific T Cells Exhibit Phenotypic Features of Helper Function, Lack of Terminal Differentiation, and High Proliferation Potential
Neidleman, J., Luo, X., Frouard, J., Xie, G., Gill, G., Stein, E. S., McGregor, M., Ma, T., George, A. F., Kosters, A., et al. (2020) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100081 · Cited by 188 · cited 7× · see citing works
“Phenotypic markers indicated that the majority of SARS-CoV-2–specific memory CD8 T cells were terminally differentiated effector memory cells (TEMRA) (54), with small populations of central memory (TCM) and effector memory (TEM) (Fig.”
BackgroundInfluential
Effect of subclinical infection on maintaining immunity against measles in vaccinated children in West Africa
Whittle, H. C., Aaby, P., Samb, B., Jensen, H., Bennett, J. V., & Simondon, F. (1999) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(98)02364-2 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Longitudinal Analysis of the Human B Cell Response to Ebola Virus Infection
Davis, C. W., Jackson, K., McElroy, A. K., Halfmann, P., Huang, J. Y., Chennareddy, C., Piper, A., Leung, Y., Albariño, C., Crozier, I., et al. (2019) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.04.036 · Cited by 172 · cited 3× · see citing works
“For other acute infectious diseases, we are not currently aware of other cross-sectional or longitudinal analyses of antigen-specific memory B cells by flow cytometry covering a 6+-month window after infection, except for four individuals with Ebola (51) and two individuals studied after yellow fever virus immunizatio…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
A review of the long-term protection after hepatitis A and B vaccination
Damme, P. V., & Herck, K. V. (2006) · Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease · doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2006.04.004 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
The CD8+T-Cell Response to Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Involves the L Antigen: Uncovering New Tricks for an Old Virus
Kotturi, M. F., Peters, B., Buendia-Laysa, F., Sidney, J., Oseroff, C., Botten, J., Grey, H. M., Buchmeier, M. J., & Sette, A. (2007) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.02632-06 · Cited by 124 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This could potentially underestimate CD8 T cell memory, as 15-mer peptides can be suboptimal for detection of some antigen-specific CD8 T cells (53); however, pools of predicted SARS-CoV2 class I epitope of optimal size also detected virus-specific CD8 T cells in ~70% of individuals 1 to 2 months PSO, indicating consi…”
Self-citation
What Is Wrong with Pertussis Vaccine Immunity?Preprint
Burdin, N., Handy, L., & Plotkin, S. A. (2017) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a029454 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Longitudinal dynamics of the human B cell response to the yellow fever 17D vaccine
Wec, A. Z., Haslwanter, D., Abdiche, Y., Shehata, L., Pedreño-Lopez, N., Moyer, C., Bornholdt, Z., Lilov, A., Nett, J., Jangra, R., et al. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.1921388117 · Cited by 96 · cited 1× · see citing works
“yellow fever virus immunization (52) (we exclude influenza”
Background
SARS-CoV-2 responsive T cell numbers and anti-Spike IgG levels are both associated with protection from COVID-19: A prospective cohort study in keyworkers
Wyllie, D., Jones, H. E., Mulchandani, R., Trickey, A., Taylor-Phillips, S., Brooks, T., Charlett, A., Ades, A., EDSAB-HOME investigators, Moore, P., et al. (2020) · doi:10.1101/2020.11.02.20222778 · Cited by 96 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, a 2800-person study found no symptomatic re-infections over a ~118-day window (78), and a 1246-person study observed no symptomatic reinfections over 6 months (79).”
Background
Antibody Responses to SARS-CoV-2: Let’s Stick to Known Knowns
Baumgarth, N., Nikolich-Žugich, J., Lee, F. E.-H., & Bhattacharya, D. (2020) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.2000839 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Robust SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell immunity is maintained at 6 months following primary infectionPreprint
Zuo, J., Dowell, A., Pearce, H., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.11.01.362319 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Switched memory B cells maintain specific memory independently of serum antibodies: The hepatitis B example
Rosado, M. M., Scarsella, M., Pandolfi, E., Cascioli, S., Giorda, E., Chionne, P., Madonne, E., Gesualdo, F., Romano, M., Ausiello, C. M., et al. (2011) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.201041187 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 are associated with protection against reinfectionPreprint
Lumley, S., O’Donnell, D., Stoesser, N. E., et al. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.11.18.20234369 · Cited by 60 · cited 1× · see citing works
“However, a 2800-person study found no symptomatic re-infections over a ~118-day window (78), and a 1246-person study observed no symptomatic reinfections over 6 months (79).”
Background
Evaluation of monoclonal antibodies with specificity of human IgA, IgA subclasses and allotypes and secretory component results of an IUIS/WHO collaborative study
Mestecky, J. F., Hamilton, R. G., Magnusson, C. G. M., Jefferis, R., Vaerman, J., Goodall, M. D., de Lange, G. G., Moro, I., Aucouturier, P., Radl, J., et al. (1996) · Journal of Immunological Methods · doi:10.1016/0022-1759(95)00289-8 · Cited by 36 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The HP6123 monoclonal anti-IgA was used because of its CDC and WHO validated specificity for human IgA1 and IgA2 and lack of crossreactivity with non-IgA isotypes (83).”
Method
SARS-CoV-2: A New Song Recalls an Old Melody
Subbarao, K. (2020) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2020.04.019 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Early induction of SARS-CoV-2 specific T cells associates with rapid viral clearance and mild disease in COVID-19 patientsPreprint
Tan, A. T., Linster, M., Tan, C. W., et al. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.10.15.341958 · Cited by 13 · cited 1× · see citing works
“T cell memory did not follow the same pattern, consistent with indications that hospitalized cases of COVID-19 can be associated with poorer T cell responses in the acute phase (5, 59).”
Result

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Research works printed but not linked: 2

[37]S. Plotkin, W. Orenstein, P. Offit, Plotkin’s Vaccines (Elsevier, ed. 7, 2018).
[45]A. Wajnberg, F. Amanat, A. Firpo, D. R. Altman, M. J. Bailey, M. Mansour, M. McMahon, P. Meade, D. R. Mendu, K. Muellers, D. Stadlbauer, K. Stone, S. Strohmeier, V. Simon, J. Aberg, D. L. Reich, F. Krammer, C. Cordon-Cardo, Robust neutralizing antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 infection persist for months. Science 370, 1227– 1230 (2020). 10.1126/science.abd7728 33115920 PMC7810037 · DOI · Paper page

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Neutralizing antibody levels are highly predictive of immune protection from symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection
Khoury, D. S., Cromer, D., Reynaldi, A., Schlub, T. E., Wheatley, A. K., Juno, J. A., Subbarao, K., Kent, S. J., Triccas, J. A., & Davenport, M. P. (2021) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01377-8 · Cited by 3,742 · see citing works
Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19
Sette, A., & Crotty, S. (2021) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.01.007 · Cited by 1,860 · see citing works
“Antibody titers are higher in men in some studies (Dan et al., 2021; Robbiani et al., 2020; Shrock et al., 2020).”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months
Levin, E. G., Lustig, Y., Cohen, C., Fluss, R., Indenbaum, V., Amit, S., Doolman, R., Asraf, K., Mendelson, E., Ziv, A., et al. (2021) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa2114583 · Cited by 1,703 · see citing works
Evolution of antibody immunity to SARS-CoV-2
Gaebler, C., Wang, Z., Lorenzi, J. C. C., Muecksch, F., Finkin, S., Tokuyama, M., Cho, A., Jankovic, M., Schaefer-Babajew, D., Oliveira, T. Y., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03207-w · Cited by 1,674 · see citing works
Resistance of SARS-CoV-2 variants to neutralization by monoclonal and serum-derived polyclonal antibodies
Chen, R. E., Zhang, X., Case, J. B., Winkler, E. S., Liu, Y., VanBlargan, L. A., Liu, J., Errico, J. M., Xie, X., Suryadevara, N., et al. (2021) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01294-w · Cited by 881 · see citing works
mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern
Goel, R. R., Painter, M. M., Apostolidis, S. A., Mathew, D., Meng, W., Rosenfeld, A. M., Lundgreen, K. A., Reynaldi, A., Khoury, D. S., Pattekar, A., et al. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abm0829 · Cited by 873 · see citing works
“Immunological studies of SARS-CoV-2 infection show that memory B and T cell responses appear to persist for at least 8 months after symptom onset (28, 29).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Resurgence of COVID-19 in Manaus, Brazil, despite high seroprevalence
Sabino, E. C., Buss, L. F., Carvalho, M. P. S., Prete, C. A., Crispim, M. A. E., Fraiji, N. A., Pereira, R. H. M., Parag, K. V., da Silva Peixoto, P., Kraemer, M. U. G., et al. (2021) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00183-5 · Cited by 758 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 vaccination induces immunological T cell memory able to cross-recognize variants from Alpha to Omicron
Tarke, A., Coelho, C. H., Zhang, Z., Dan, J. M., Yu, E. D., Methot, N., Bloom, N. I., Goodwin, B., Phillips, E., Mallal, S., et al. (2022) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.01.015 · Cited by 858 · see citing works
“Flow cytometry-based B cell assays Detection of antigen-specific B cells by flow cytometry was performed using B cell probes consisting of SARS-CoV-2 viral proteins conjugated with fluorescent streptavidin, as previously described by our group (Dan et al., 2021).”
Self-citation
Model-informed COVID-19 vaccine prioritization strategies by age and serostatus
Bubar, K. M., Reinholt, K., Kissler, S. M., Lipsitch, M., Cobey, S., Grad, Y. H., & Larremore, D. B. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abe6959 · Cited by 775 · see citing works
Association Between mRNA Vaccination and COVID-19 Hospitalization and Disease Severity
Tenforde, M. W., Self, W. H., Adams, K., Gaglani, M., Ginde, A. A., McNeal, T., Ghamande, S., Douin, D. J., Talbot, H. K., Casey, J. D., et al. (2021) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2021.19499 · Cited by 633 · see citing works
Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the total CD4+ and CD8+ T cell reactivity in infected or vaccinated individuals
Tarke, A., Sidney, J., Methot, N., Yu, E. D., Zhang, Y., Dan, J. M., Goodwin, B., Rubiro, P., Sutherland, A., Wang, E., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100355 · Cited by 706 · see citing works
Self-citation
Antibody Persistence through 6 Months after the Second Dose of mRNA-1273 Vaccine for Covid-19
Doria-Rose, N., Suthar, M. S., Makowski, M., O’Connell, S., McDermott, A. B., Flach, B., Ledgerwood, J. E., Mascola, J. R., Graham, B. S., Lin, B. C., et al. (2021) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmc2103916 · Cited by 673 · see citing works
Assessment of protection against reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 among 4 million PCR-tested individuals in Denmark in 2020: a population-level observational study
Hansen, C. H., Michlmayr, D., Gubbels, S. M., Mølbak, K., & Ethelberg, S. (2021) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00575-4 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
Homologous and Heterologous Covid-19 Booster Vaccinations
Atmar, R. L., Lyke, K. E., Deming, M. E., Jackson, L. A., Branche, A. R., Sahly, H. M. E., Rostad, C. A., Martin, J. M., Johnston, C., Rupp, R. E., et al. (2022) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa2116414 · Cited by 629 · see citing works
Distinct antibody and memory B cell responses in SARS-CoV-2 naïve and recovered individuals after mRNA vaccination
Goel, R. R., Apostolidis, S. A., Painter, M. M., Mathew, D., Pattekar, A., Kuthuru, O., Gouma, S., Hicks, P., Meng, W., Rosenfeld, A. M., et al. (2021) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abi6950 · Cited by 655 · see citing works
T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 spike cross-recognize Omicron
Keeton, R. S., Tincho, M. B., Ngomti, A., Baguma, R., Benede, N., Suzuki, A., Khan, K., Cele, S., Bernstein, M. P., Karim, F., et al. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04460-3 · Cited by 611 · see citing works
Self-citation
mRNA vaccination boosts cross-variant neutralizing antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection
Stamatatos, L., Czartoski, J., Wan, Y.-H., Homad, L. J., Rubin, V., Glantz, H., Neradilek, M., Seydoux, E., Jennewein, M. F., MacCamy, A. J., et al. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abg9175 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans
Sadarangani, M., Marchant, A., & Kollmann, T. R. (2021) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-021-00578-z · Cited by 560 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern partially escape humoral but not T cell responses in COVID-19 convalescent donors and vaccine recipients
Geers, D., Shamier, M. C., Bogers, S., den Hartog, G., Gommers, L., Nieuwkoop, N. N., Schmitz, K. S., Rijsbergen, L. C., van Osch, J. A. T., Dijkhuizen, E., et al. (2021) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abj1750 · Cited by 529 · see citing works
Neutralising antibody titres as predictors of protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants and the impact of boosting: a meta-analysis
Cromer, D., Steain, M., Reynaldi, A., Schlub, T. E., Wheatley, A. K., Juno, J. A., Kent, S. J., Triccas, J. A., Khoury, D. S., & Davenport, M. P. (2022) · The Lancet Microbe · doi:10.1016/s2666-5247(21)00267-6 · Cited by 590 · see citing works
Humoral and cellular immune memory to four COVID-19 vaccines
Zhang, Z., Mateus, J., Coelho, C. H., Dan, J. M., Moderbacher, C. R., Gálvez, R. I., Côrtes, F. H., Grifoni, A., Tarke, A., Chang, J., et al. (2022) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.05.022 · Cited by 567 · see citing works
“These divergent antibody and memory B cell kinetics were also observed in SARS-CoV-2 infection (Dan et al., 2021).”
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SARS-CoV-2 infection induces long-lived bone marrow plasma cells in humans
Turner, J. S., Kim, W., Kalaidina, E., Goss, C. W., Rauseo, A. M., Schmitz, A. J., Hansen, L., Haile, A., Klebert, M. K., Pusic, I., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03647-4 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
“8) Duration of symptoms in days (median [range]) 14 (1-43) 13 (6-30)”
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Guidelines for the use of flow cytometry and cell sorting in immunological studies (third edition)
Cossarizza, A., Chang, H., Radbruch, A., Abrignani, S., Addo, R., Akdis, M., Andrä, I., Andreata, F., Annunziato, F., Arranz, E., et al. (2021) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.202170126 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
The COVID-19 puzzle: deciphering pathophysiology and phenotypes of a new disease entity
Osuchowski, M., Winkler, M., Skirecki, T., Cajander, S., Shankar-Hari, M., Lachmann, G., Monneret, G., Venet, F., Bauer, M., Brunkhorst, F., et al. (2021) · The Lancet Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/s2213-2600(21)00218-6 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Cellular and humoral immune responses following SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in patients with multiple sclerosis on anti-CD20 therapy
Apostolidis, S. A., Kakara, M., Painter, M. M., Goel, R. R., Mathew, D., Lenzi, K., Rezk, A., Patterson, K. R., Espinoza, D. A., Kadri, J. C., et al. (2021) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01507-2 · Cited by 500 · see citing works
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Longitudinal analysis shows durable and broad immune memory after SARS-CoV-2 infection with persisting antibody responses and memory B and T cells
Cohen, K. W., Linderman, S. L., Moodie, Z., Czartoski, J., Lai, L., Mantus, G., Norwood, C., Nyhoff, L. E., Edara, V. V., Floyd, K., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100354 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
“Persistence of 463 RBD memory B cell has been noted.(25-27) We presume this may be explained by 464 sustained production of memory B cells in germinal centers of lymph nodes draining the 465”
Vaccines elicit highly conserved cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 Omicron
Liu, J., Chandrashekar, A., Sellers, D., Barrett, J., Jacob-Dolan, C., Lifton, M. A., McMahan, K., Sciacca, M., VanWyk, H., Wu, C., et al. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04465-y · Cited by 451 · see citing works
The coronavirus is here to stay — here’s what that means
Phillips, N. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00396-2 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Covid-19 Vaccines — Immunity, Variants, Boosters
Barouch, D. (2022) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmra2206573 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
After the pandemic: perspectives on the future trajectory of COVID-19
Telenti, A., Arvin, A. M., Corey, L., Corti, D., Diamond, M., García‐Sastre, A., Garry, R. F., Holmes, E. C., Pang, P. S., & Virgin, H. W. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03792-w · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Effect of Immunosuppression on the Immunogenicity of mRNA Vaccines to SARS-CoV-2
Deepak, P., Kim, W., Paley, M., Yang, M. M., Carvidi, A. B., Demissie, E., El‐Qunni, A. A., Haile, A., Huang, K., Kinnett, B., et al. (2021) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/m21-1757 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Population Immunity and Covid-19 Severity with Omicron Variant in South Africa
Madhi, S. A., Kwatra, G., Myers, J. E., Jassat, W., Dhar, N., Mukendi, C. K., Nana, A. J., Blumberg, L., Welch, R., Ngorima-Mabhena, N., et al. (2022) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa2119658 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
“19 We believe that the evolution of cell-mediated immunity from prior natural infection and vaccination has resulted in the decoupling of the high case rates seen with the Omicron variant and the rates of severe disease.”
Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, BBV152: interim results from a double-blind, randomised, multicentre, phase 2 trial, and 3-month follow-up of a double-blind, randomised phase 1 trial
Ella, R., Reddy, S., Jogdand, H., Sarangi, V., Ganneru, B., Prasad, S. D., Das, D., Raju, D., Praturi, U., Sapkal, G. N., et al. (2021) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(21)00070-0 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Binding and Neutralization Antibody Titers After a Single Vaccine Dose in Health Care Workers Previously Infected With SARS-CoV-2
Saadat, S., Rikhtegaran Tehrani, Z., Logue, J., Newman, M., Frieman, M. B., Harris, A. D., & Sajadi, M. M. (2021) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2021.3341 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Phase 1 randomized trial of a plant-derived virus-like particle vaccine for COVID-19
Ward, B. J., Gobeil, P., Séguin, A., Atkins, J., Boulay, I., Charbonneau, P.-Y., Couture, M., D’Aoust, M., Dhaliwall, J. K., Finkle, C. D., et al. (2021) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01370-1 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
A Comprehensive Review of the Global Efforts on COVID-19 Vaccine Development
Li, Y., Tenchov, R., Smoot, J., Liu, C., Watkins, S., & Zhou, Q. A. (2021) · ACS Central Science · doi:10.1021/acscentsci.1c00120 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Low-dose mRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccine generates durable memory enhanced by cross-reactive T cells
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“After SARS-CoV-2 infection, immunological memory has been observed for ≥8 months for CD4 + T cells, CD8 + T cells, memory B cells, and antibodies (21, 22).”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Lessons learned 1 year after SARS-CoV-2 emergence leading to COVID-19 pandemic
To, K. K., Sridhar, S., Chiu, K. H., Hung, D. L. L., Li, X., Hung, I. F., Tam, A. R., Chung, T. W., Chan, J. F., Zhang, J., et al. (2021) · Emerging Microbes & Infections · doi:10.1080/22221751.2021.1898291 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Neutralizing antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in symptomatic COVID-19 is persistent and critical for survival
Dispinseri, S., Secchi, M., Pirillo, M. F., Tolazzi, M., Borghi, M., Brigatti, C., Angelis, M. L. D., Baratella, M., Bazzigaluppi, E., Venturi, G., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22958-8 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Maturation and persistence of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 memory B cell response
Sokal, A., Chappert, P., Barba-Spaeth, G., Roeser, A., Fourati, S., Azzaoui, I., Vandenberghe, A., Fernandez, I., Meola, A., Bouvier-Alias, M., et al. (2021) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.01.050 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
“This is also consistent with recent results showing in a large cohort of patients that SARS-CoV-2 antigen-speciﬁc MBCs persist up to 8 months after infection (Dan et al., 2021).”
BackgroundResult
Immunogenicity of standard and extended dosing intervals of BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine
Payne, R. P., Longet, S., Austin, J. A., Skelly, D. T., Dejnirattisai, W., Adele, S., Meardon, N., Faustini, S., Al-Taei, S., Moore, S. C., et al. (2021) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.011 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
“The sustained T cell response from 1 to 10 weeks after the first dose in the extended dosing interval group contrasts with the waning of T cells we and others (Dan et al., 2021; Tomic et al., 2021) have reported after natural infection.”
Immunogenicity and safety of a third dose of CoronaVac, and immune persistence of a two-dose schedule, in healthy adults: interim results from two single-centre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 2 clinical trials
Zeng, G., Wu, Q., Pan, H., Li, M., Yang, J., Wang, L., Wu, Z., Jiang, D., Deng, X., Chu, K., et al. (2021) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(21)00681-2 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
“27,28 This study is the first to show that the antibody response mediated by a third dose of CoronaVac given 2 months after the second dose rebounded only moderately and degraded to near the seropositive threshold after 6 months.”
SARS-CoV-2 501Y.V2 escapes neutralization by South African COVID-19 donor plasma
Wibmer, C. K., Ayres, F., Hermanus, T., Madzivhandila, M., Kgagudi, P., Oosthuysen, B., Lambson, B. E., de Oliveira, T., Vermeulen, M., van der Berg, K., et al. (2021) · doi:10.1101/2021.01.18.427166
Prospects for durable immune control of SARS-CoV-2 and prevention of reinfection
Cromer, D., Juno, J. A., Khoury, D., Reynaldi, A., Wheatley, A. K., Kent, S. J., & Davenport, M. P. (2021) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-021-00550-x · Cited by 265 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 Variants, Vaccines, and Host Immunity
Mistry, P., Barmania, F., Mellet, J., Peta, K. T., Strydom, A., Viljoen, I. M., James, W., Gordon, S., & Pepper, M. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.809244 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
“Similarly, it was found that B-lymphocyte memory cells were stable for six months after infection and accumulated more in patients with severe disease with IgG being the most dominant isotype (52, 57, 58).”
Background
Correlates of protection against SARS ‐ CoV ‐2 infection and COVID‐19 disease
Goldblatt, D., Alter, G., Crotty, S., & Plotkin, S. A. (2022) · Immunological Reviews · doi:10.1111/imr.13091 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
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Genomic characterization and epidemiology of an emerging SARS-CoV-2 variant in Delhi, India
Dhar, M. S., Marwal, R., Radhakrishnan, V. S., Ponnusamy, K., Jolly, B., Bhoyar, R. C., Sardana, V., Naushin, S., Rophina, M., Mellan, T. A., et al. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abj9932 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
“About one-third of NAb+ve subjects at Phase I became NAb-ve by Phase II, with most showing declining inhibition on sVNT assays (Fig 2B) (5).”
Genomic characterization and Epidemiology of an emerging SARS-CoV-2 variant in Delhi, India
Dhar, M. S., Marwal, R., Radhakrishnan, V., Ponnusamy, K., Jolly, B., Bhoyar, R. C., Sardana, V., Naushin, S., Rophina, M., Mellan, T. A., et al. (2021) · doi:10.1101/2021.06.02.21258076 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Modeling transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron in China
Cai, J., Deng, X., Yang, J., Sun, K., Liu, H., Chen, Z., Peng, C., Chen, X., Wu, Q., Zou, J., et al. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01855-7 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccines: Immunological Mechanism and Beyond
Bettini, E., & Locci, M. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9020147 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Hybrid immunity
Crotty, S. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abj2258 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
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Anti-SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain antibody evolution after mRNA vaccination
Cho, A., Muecksch, F., Schaefer-Babajew, D. J., Wang, Z., Finkin, S., Gaebler, C., Ramos, V., Cipolla, M., Mendoza, P., Agudelo, M., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04060-7 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Long-term perturbation of the peripheral immune system months after SARS-CoV-2 infection
Ryan, F. J., Hope, C. M., Masavuli, M. G., Lynn, M. A., Mekonnen, Z. A., Yeow, A. E. L., García-Valtanen, P., Al-Delfi, Z., Gummow, J., Ferguson, C. C., et al. (2022) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-021-02228-6 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
“Anti-Spike and anti-RBD serology data demonstrated heterogeneity of antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 consistent with previously published reports showing long-lasting IgG and IgG1 antibody responses to at least 6 months post-infection which were correlated with disease severity [36, 71, 72].”
Background
SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination induces functionally diverse antibodies to NTD, RBD, and S2
Amanat, F., Thapa, M., Lei, T., Ahmed, S. M. S., Adelsberg, D. C., Carreño, J. M., Strohmeier, S., Schmitz, A. J., Zafar, S., Zhou, J. Q., et al. (2021) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.06.005 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
“Similarly, encouraging data have been published on both the plasmablast response and the memory B cell response induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection (Dan et al., 2021; Gaebler et al., 2020; Guthmiller et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2021; Robbiani et al., 2020; Rodda et al., 2021; Wilson et al., 2020).”
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Impaired humoral immunity to SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 vaccine in kidney transplant recipients and dialysis patients
Rincón-Arévalo, H., Choi, M., Stefanski, A., Halleck, F., Weber, U., Szelinski, F., Jahrsdörfer, B., Schrezenmeier, H., Ludwig, C., Sattler, A., et al. (2021) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abj1031 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Immunological memory to SARS‐CoV ‐2 infection and COVID ‐19 vaccines
Sette, A., & Crotty, S. (2022) · Immunological Reviews · doi:10.1111/imr.13089 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
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The germinal centre B cell response to SARS-CoV-2
Laidlaw, B. J., & Ellebedy, A. H. (2021) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-021-00657-1 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
A COVID-19 peptide vaccine for the induction of SARS-CoV-2 T cell immunity
Heitmann, J. S., Bilich, T., Tandler, C., Nelde, A., Maringer, Y., Marconato, M., Reusch, J., Jäger, S., Denk, M., Richter, M., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04232-5 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Post-COVID syndrome. A case series and comprehensive review
Anaya, J., Rojas, M., Salinas, M., Rodríguez, Y., Roa, G., Lozano, M., Rodríguez-Jimenez, M., Montoya, N., Zapata, E., Monsalve, D., et al. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2021.102947 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“Our results confirm the heterogeneous but long-lasting humoral response to SARS-CoV-2 infection [97,98].”
Overview of the Main Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: Mechanism of Action, Efficacy and Safety
Mascellino, M., Timoteo, F. D., Angelis, M. D., & Oliva, A. (2021) · Infection and Drug Resistance · doi:10.2147/idr.s315727 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Infection- and vaccine-induced antibody binding and neutralization of the B.1.351 SARS-CoV-2 variant
Edara, V. V., Norwood, C., Floyd, K., Lai, L., Davis-Gardner, M. E., Hudson, W. H., Mantus, G., Nyhoff, L. E., Adelman, M. W., Fineman, R., et al. (2021) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2021.03.009 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
“Recent studies have found that binding and neutralizing antibodies are maintained for at least 8 months following SARSCoV-2 infection (Dan et al., 2021; Pradenas et al., 2021; Sherina et al., 2021).”
Long-term SARS-CoV-2-specific immune and inflammatory responses in individuals recovering from COVID-19 with and without post-acute symptoms
Peluso, M. J., Deitchman, A. N., Torres, L., Iyer, N. S., Munter, S. E., Nixon, C. C., Donatelli, J. L., Thanh, C., Takahashi, S., Hakim, J. M. C., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109518 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Evolution of antibody responses up to 13 months after SARS-CoV-2 infection and risk of reinfection
Gallais, F., Gantner, P., Bruel, T., Velay, A., Planas, D., Wendling, M.-J., Bayer, S., Solis, M., Laugel, E., Reix, N., et al. (2021) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103561 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
“waning of humoral immunity, but rather a contraction of the immune response, whilst antibody affinity maturation occurs, and anti-S memory B cells persist [8].”
Impact of circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants on mRNA vaccine-induced immunity
Lucas, C., Vogels, C. B. F., Yildirim, I., Rothman, J. E., Lu, P., Monteiro, V., Gehlhausen, J. R., Campbell, M., Silva, J., Tabachnikova, A., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04085-y · Cited by 226 · see citing works
BNT162b2 Protection against the Omicron Variant in Children and Adolescents
Price, A. M., Olson, S. M., Newhams, M. M., Halasa, N. B., Boom, J. A., Sahni, L. C., Pannaraj, P. S., Irby, K., Bline, K., Maddux, A. B., et al. (2022) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa2202826 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
BNT162b2 vaccination induces durable SARS-CoV-2–specific T cells with a stem cell memory phenotype
Guerrera, G., Picozza, M., D’Orso, S., Placido, R., Pirronello, M., Verdiani, A., Termine, A., Fabrizio, C., Giannessi, F., Sambucci, M., et al. (2021) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abl5344 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 genome-wide T cell epitope mapping reveals immunodominance and substantial CD8 + T cell activation in COVID-19 patients
Saini, S. K., Hersby, D. S., Tamhane, T., Povlsen, H. R., Hernandez, S. P. A., Nielsen, M., Gang, A. O., & Hadrup, S. R. (2021) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abf7550 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Immune responses to two and three doses of the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine in adults with solid tumors
Shroff, R. T., Chalasani, P., Wei, R., Pennington, D., Quirk, G., Schoenle, M. V., Peyton, K. L., Uhrlaub, J. L., Ripperger, T. J., Jergović, M., et al. (2021) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01542-z · Cited by 233 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell memory is sustained in COVID-19 convalescent patients for 10 months with successful development of stem cell-like memory T cells
Jung, J. H., Rha, M., Sa, M., Choi, H. K., Jeon, J. H., Seok, H., Park, D. W., Park, S., Jeong, H. W., Choi, W. S., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24377-1 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Epidemiological and evolutionary considerations of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine dosing regimes
Saad-Roy, C. M., Morris, S. E., Metcalf, C. J. E., Mina, M. J., Baker, R. E., Farrar, J., Holmes, E. C., Pybus, O. G., Graham, A. L., Levin, S. A., et al. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abg8663 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 infection generates tissue-localized immunological memory in humans
Poon, M. M. L., Rybkina, K., Kato, Y., Kubota, M., Matsumoto, R., Bloom, N. I., Zhang, Z., Hastie, K. M., Grifoni, A., Weiskopf, D., et al. (2021) · Science Immunology · doi:10.1126/sciimmunol.abl9105 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Self-citation
Probiotic improves symptomatic and viral clearance in Covid19 outpatients: a randomized, quadruple-blinded, placebo-controlled trial
Gutiérrez‐Castrellón, P., Gandara-Martí, T., y Abreu, A. T. A., Nieto-Rufino, C. D., López-Orduña, E., Jiménez–Escobar, I., Jiménez-Gutiérrez, C., López‐Velázquez, G., & Espadaler, J. (2022) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2021.2018899 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“Of note, neutralizing antibodies were not measured, but recent research indicates immunoglobulins to spike antigens provide a good correlate to both neutralization(31,32) and efficacy,(33) and spike-specific memory B-cells have been found to persist for months after infection.(34,35) Our findings, together with the re…”
Modeling vaccination rollouts, SARS-CoV-2 variants and the requirement for non-pharmaceutical interventions in Italy
Giordano, G., Colaneri, M., Di Filippo, A., Blanchini, F., Bolzern, P., De Nicolao, G., Sacchi, P., Colaneri, P., & Bruno, R. (2021) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01334-5 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Long COVID following Mild SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Characteristic T Cell Alterations and Response to Antihistamines
Glynne, P. A., Tahmasebi, N., Gant, V. A., & Gupta, R. (2021) · Journal of Investigative Medicine · doi:10.1136/jim-2021-002051 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Beyond neutralization: Fc-dependent antibody effector functions in SARS-CoV-2 infection
Zhang, A., Stacey, H. D., D’Agostino, M. R., Tugg, Y., Marzok, A., & Miller, M. S. (2022) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-022-00813-1 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Dynamic prioritization of COVID-19 vaccines when social distancing is limited for essential workers
Buckner, J. H., Chowell, G., & Springborn, M. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2025786118 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“While the longevity of immunity to COVID-19—either following natural infection or vaccination—is not yet well understood, emerging analysis suggests that, following infection, “durable immunity against secondary COVID-19 disease is a possibility for most individuals” in the sense that immune memory was present in appr…”
Background
Two doses of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination induce more robust immune responses to emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern than does natural infection.
Skelly, D. T., Harding, A. C., Gilbert-Jaramillo, J., Knight, M. L., Longet, S., Brown, A., Adele, S., Adland, E., Brown, H., Team, M. L., et al. (2021) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-226857/v2 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
A guide to adaptive immune memory
Lam, N., Lee, Y. S., & Färber, D. L. (2024) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-024-01040-6 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
“These studies have shown that SARS-CoV-2-specific memory CD4 + T cells and CD8 + T cells could be consistently detected in blood following acute infection and decreased in number over the months following infection 43,44 .”
CD8+ T cells specific for an immunodominant SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid epitope cross-react with selective seasonal coronaviruses
Lineburg, K. E., Grant, E. J., Swaminathan, S., Chatzileontiadou, D. S. M., Szeto, C., Sloane, H., Panikkar, A., Raju, J., Crooks, P., Rehan, S., et al. (2021) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2021.04.006 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Efficient recall of Omicron-reactive B cell memory after a third dose of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine
Goel, R. R., Painter, M. M., Lundgreen, K. A., Apostolidis, S. A., Baxter, A. E., Giles, J. R., Mathew, D., Pattekar, A., Reynaldi, A., Khoury, D. S., et al. (2022) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.009 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“Antigen-specific B cell responses were quantified from bulk PBMCs by flow cytometry using fluorescently labeled SARSCoV-2 spike and RBD probes as previously described (Dan et al., 2021; Goel et al., 2021b, 2021a).”
Can we predict T cell specificity with digital biology and machine learning?
Hudson, D., Fernandes, R. A., Basham, M., Ogg, G. S., & Koohy, H. (2023) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-023-00835-3 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
“For infectious diseases such as SARS-CoV-2, predictors of T cell specificity could be of great use in understanding the magnitude and dynamics of antigen-specific T cell responses to the disease 116 and vaccination 117 .”
Background
Clinical severity of COVID-19 in patients admitted to hospital during the omicron wave in South Africa: a retrospective observational study
Jassat, W., Karim, S. S. A., Mudara, C., Welch, R., Ozougwu, L., Groome, M. J., Govender, N., von Gottberg, A., Wolter, N., Wolmarans, M., et al. (2022) · The Lancet Global Health · doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(22)00114-0 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Humoral and cellular responses to mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 in patients with a history of CD20 B-cell-depleting therapy (RituxiVac): an investigator-initiated, single-centre, open-label study
Moor, M. B., Suter‐Riniker, F., Horn, M. P., Aeberli, D., Amsler, J., Möller, B., Njue, L. M., Medri, C., Angelillo‐Scherrer, A., Borradori, L., et al. (2021) · The Lancet Rheumatology · doi:10.1016/s2665-9913(21)00251-4 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
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Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to eight months after infection.
Dan, J. M., Mateus, J., Kato, Y., Hastie, K. M., Yu, E. D., Faliti, C. E., Grifoni, A., Ramirez, S. I., Haupt, S., Frazier, A., et al. (2020) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 121 · see citing works
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Heterogeneous magnitude of immunological memory to SARS‐CoV‐2 in recovered individuals
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ASSESSMENT OF SARS-COV-2 SPECIFIC B-CELL IMMUNE MEMORY: EVIDENCE FOR PERSISTENCE UP TO 1 YEAR POST-INFECTION
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Authors: Dan, J. M., Mateus, J., Kato, Y., Hastie, K. M., Yu, E. D., Faliti, C. E., Grifoni, A., Ramirez, S. I., Haupt, S., Frazier, A., Nakao, C., Rayaprolu, V., Rawlings, S. A., Peters, B., Krammer, F., Simon, V., Saphire, E. O., Smith, D. M., Weiskopf, D., Sette, A., & Crotty, S.
Affiliations: La Jolla Institute for Immunology (US)
Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
University of California San Diego (US)
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
Corresponding author: Dan, Jennifer M.
Kato, Yu
Weiskopf, Daniela
Sette, Alessandro
Crotty, Shane
ORCID: Dan, Jennifer M.
Mateus, Jose
Kato, Yu
Hastie, Kathryn M.
Yu, Esther Dawen
Faliti, Caterina E.
Grifoni, Alba
Ramirez, Sydney I.
Haupt, Sonya
Frazier, April
Nakao, Catherine
Rayaprolu, Vamseedhar
Rawlings, Stephen A.
Peters, Bjoern
Krammer, Florian
Simon, Viviana
Saphire, Erica Ollmann
Smith, Davey M.
Weiskopf, Daniela
Sette, Alessandro
Crotty, Shane
Venue: Science
Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published: 2021-02-05
Volume: 371
Issue: 6529
ISSN: 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
1095-9203
DOI: 10.1126/science.abf4063
PMC: PMC7919858
OpenAlex: W3121008609
Cited by: 2,656
References: 80
Citations by year: 2026: 84 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 218 · 2023: 384 · 2022: 839 · 2021: 972 · 2020: 6 · 2014: 1
FWCI: 191.29
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
ImmPort
Funders: National Institutes of Health (Nr. 75N9301900065)
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI142742, AI135078, HHSN272201400008C, 75N93019C00051, AI007036, U01 AI141995, AI141995-03, U01 CA260541-01, AI007384)
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-006133)
Wellcome (INV-006133)
Mastercard Incorporated (INV-006133)
JPB Foundation
Open Philanthropy Project (2020-215611)
Steven and Alexandra Cohen Foundation
John and Mary Tu Foundation
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 pandemic, immunological memory, memory B cells, CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, adaptive immune response, long-term immunity, reinfection, vaccine efficacy, immune response heterogeneity
MeSH terms: COVID-19, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Antibodies, Viral, B-Lymphocytes, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Immunologic Memory, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, United States, CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes, CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes, Young Adult, Antibodies, Neutralizing, Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus

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Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection.

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