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Immunological memory to SARS-CoV-2 assessed for up to 8 months after infection.
Open accessAbstract
Variable memory: Immune memory against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) helps to determine protection against reinfection, disease risk, and vaccine efficacy. Using 188 human cases across the range of severity of COVID-19, Dan et al. analyzed cross-sectional data describing the dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 memory B cells, CD8 + T cells, and CD4 + T cells for more than 6 months after infection. The authors found a high degree of heterogeneity in the magnitude of adaptive immune responses that persisted into the immune memory phase to the virus. However, immune memory in three immunological compartments remained measurable in greater than 90% of subjects for more than 5 months after infection. Despite the heterogeneity of immune responses, these results show that durable immunity against secondary COVID-19 disease is a possibility for most individuals. Science , this issue p. eabf4063
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In the citing paper
“Memory B cells might contribute to the durability of antibody responses38,39; B cell germinal centre responses and the durability of protective efficacy following CV2CoV vaccination remain to be determined.”
From Optimization of non-coding regions for a non-modified mRNA COVID-19 vaccine (2022) · cites this paper as [39]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Although it is unclear how long protective effects last beyond the first few months after vaccination, some studies suggest that the elicited neutralizing activity is maintained for up to 8 months after the natural infection with SARS-CoV-2 (refs. 41,42).”
From Modeling vaccination rollouts, SARS-CoV-2 variants and the requirement for non-pharmaceutical interventions in Italy (2021) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“The mRNA vaccine clinical trials were not powered to address severe disease, including complications after hospitalization.29,30”
From Association Between mRNA Vaccination and COVID-19 Hospitalization and Disease Severity (2021) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“Data from medium-term follow-up of individuals after infection suggest that T cell responses wane more rapidly than antibody responses80.”
From Immunological mechanisms of vaccine-induced protection against COVID-19 in humans (2021) · cites this paper as [80]
In the citing paper
“Immunological studies of SARS-CoV-2 infection show that memory B and T cell responses appear to persist for at least 8 months after symptom onset (28, 29).”
From mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“These results are consistent with published observations of convalescent patients with Covid-19 through 8 months after symptom onset.5”
From Antibody Persistence through 6 Months after the Second Dose of mRNA-1273 Vaccine for Covid-19 (2021) · cites this paper as [5]
In the citing paper
“Robust CD4+ and CD8+ T cell memory is induced after COVID-19,22,39, 40, 41 and multiple COVID-19 vaccines elicit CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses.26,42, 43, 44, 45”
From Impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants on the total CD4+ and CD8+ T cell reactivity in infected or vaccinated individuals (2021) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“SARS-CoV-2 infection rapidly elicits nAbs (16, 21–24) that decline, but remain detectable, over several months (25–29).”
From mRNA vaccination boosts cross-variant neutralizing antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“Overall, the accumulating evidence from our study and others22-25 shows that long-term humoral response and vaccine effectiveness in previously infected persons were superior to that in recipients of two doses of vaccine.”
From Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“Several studies on the durability of humoral response in persons who have recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection showed that both IgG and neutralizing antibody levels decrease only modestly at 8 to 10 months after the infection.22,23”
From Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“this measurement does not account for Fc effector functions; Fcγ receptor or complement protein engagement by non-, weakly-, or strongly- neutralizing antibodies that bind the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on the surface of infected cells could confer substantial protection39–41.”
From Resistance of SARS-CoV-2 variants to neutralization by monoclonal and serum-derived polyclonal antibodies (2021) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“Although neutralizing antibody titers have not correlated with reduced COVID-19 severity (Dan et al., 2021; Piccoli et al., 2020; Robbiani et al., 2020), SARS-CoV-2 cTfh cell frequencies have been associated with reduced disease severity (Rydyznski Moderbacher et al., 2020).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“However, it should also be noted that circulating SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody titers are relatively low in a substantial fraction of recovered COVID-19 cases (Dan et al., 2021; Robbiani et al., 2020; Wajnberg et al., 2020), indicating that either the neutralizing antibody potency or the serum concentration is suboptimal in this subset.”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Serum antibody titers were poorly predictive of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 CD4+ T cells in a study of 188 COVID-19 cases (Dan et al., 2021).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“In a cohort of 188 cases, memory B cells specific for Spike, RBD, and nucleocapsid were each detectable in 100% of subjects at 6+ months post-infection (Dan et al., 2021).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“data so far indicate that T cell memory, B cell memory, and antibodies are all likely to persist for years in most individuals infected by SARS-CoV-2 (Dan et al., 2021; Gaebler et al., 2020; Wajnberg et al., 2020; Zuo et al., 2020a).”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Antibody titers were not a surrogate indicator of the magnitude of memory T cells (Dan et al., 2021), suggesting that simple antibody serodiagnostic tests will not be a robust indicator of protective immunity in people previously infected with SARS-CoV-2.”
From Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Dan et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“A previous study24 showed a decrease in neutralising antibody titres over the first 8 months of infection, with a half-life of around 3–4 months”
From Neutralising antibody titres as predictors of protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants and the impact of boosting: a meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [24]
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Del Valle, D. M., Kim-Schulze, S., Huang, H.-H., Beckmann, N. D., Nirenberg, S., Wang, B., Lavin, Y., Swartz, T. H., Madduri, D., Stock, A., et al. (2020) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-020-1051-9 · Cited by 2,605
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- 10.1126/science.abd7728 · DOI · Paper page
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The Robustness of Cellular Immunity Determines the Fate of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
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CDC Interim Recommendations for Fully Vaccinated People
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COVID‑19 vaccination and IgG and IgA antibody dynamics in healthcare workers
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“A natural exposure to SARS-CoV-2 generate anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies that are largely protective for at least 6 months post-infection (23, 24).”
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“Conflicting reports have described the rapidity of antibody decline following SARS-CoV-2 infection, with some studies reporting a rapid decay of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies,(3-6) while others have described stable short-term responses(7) or even a sustained response, up to 8 months after infection.(8) In keeping with t…”
BackgroundIdentification of presented SARS-CoV-2 HLA class I and HLA class II peptides using HLA peptidomics
Nagler, A., Kalaora, S., Barbolin, C., Gangaev, A., Ketelaars, S. L. C., Alon, M., Pai, J. A., Benedek, G., Yahalom-Ronen, Y., Noam Erez, A., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109305 · Cited by 47
“TotestforCD8+Tcellrecognition,weselectedtwoSARS-CoV-2 HLA-I peptides identified in this study that were not previously tested for reactivity and were identified in different samples, We used peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) samples from 6 COVID-19patientswithdiversediseaseseveritiesandtwohealthy donors (Figure 5…”
InfluentialButsch, W. S., Hajduk, A. M., Cardel, M. I., Donahoo, W. T., Kyle, T. K., Stanford, F. C., Zeltser, L. M., Kotz, C. M., & Jastreboff, A. M. (2021) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.23251 · Cited by 47
Revisiting COVID-19 policies: 10 evidence-based recommendations for where to go from here
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“encode for the entire spike protein, providing robust and complex antibody-mediated as well as T-cell immune responses [17, 21, 185, 186].”
BackgroundAdapting Serosurveys for the SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Era
Duarte, N., Yanes‐Lane, M., Arora, R. K., Bobrovitz, N., Liu, M., Bego, M. G., Yan, T., Cao, C., Gurry, C., Hankins, C. A., et al. (2021) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofab632 · Cited by 46
“Importantly, cell-mediated immunity plays an important protective role ([20]), but such assays are not amenable to population-level studies because they are generally costly and labor-intensive.”
Shree, T., Shankar, V., Lohmeyer, J. J. K., Czerwinski, D. K., Schroers‐Martin, J. G., Rodriguez, G. M., Beygi, S., Kanegai, A. M., Corbelli, K. S., Gabriel, E., et al. (2022) · Blood Cancer Discovery · doi:10.1158/2643-3230.bcd-21-0222 · Cited by 47
“Streptavidin–BV786 (BD Biosciences, #563858) was added to each to designate nonspecific binding of the streptavidin to the cells (25).”
BackgroundÇağlayan, D., Süner, A. F., Şiyve, N., Güzel, I., Irmak, Ç., IŞIK, E., Appak, Ö., Çelik, M., Öztürk, G., Çavuş, S. A., et al. (2022) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.27620 · Cited by 45
“Circulating antibody titers are not necessarily predictive for T cell memory.(26) Six months after two doses of an inactivated vaccine, enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)‐ identified anti‐S and anti‐N antibodies exhibited a gradual decline although immune memory based on interferon‐γ‐ secreting T cells persiste…”
BackgroundImpaired Humoral Immunity Is Associated With Prolonged COVID-19 Despite Robust CD8 T-Cell Responses
Lyudovyk, O., Kim, J. Y., Qualls, D. A., Hwee, M. A., Lin, Y.-H., Boutemine, S. R., Elhanati, Y., Solovyov, A., Douglas, M., Chen, E., et al. (2022) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccell.2022.05.013 · Cited by 48
“These studies have demonstrated broad humoral and cellular adaptive memory in recovered patients (Dan et al., 2021; Kared et al., 2021; Minervina et al., 2021; Peng et al., 2020; Rodda et al., 2021; Sekine et al., 2020).”
A simulation-deep reinforcement learning (SiRL) approach for epidemic control optimization
Bushaj, S., Yin, X., Beqiri, A., Andrews, D., & Büyüktahtakın, İ. E. (2022) · Annals of Operations Research · doi:10.1007/s10479-022-04926-7 · Cited by 47
“Dasaklis et al. (2012) critically review the roles of logistics operations and their management in epidemic control and identify possible literature gaps.”
BackgroundT follicular helper 17 (Tfh17) cells are superior for immunological memory maintenance
Gao, X., Luo, K., Wang, D., Wei, Y., Yao, Y., Deng, J., Yang, Y., Zeng, Q., Dong, X., Xiong, L., et al. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.82217 · Cited by 45
Evolutionary implications of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination for the future design of vaccination strategies
Rouzine, I. M., & Rozhnova, G. (2023) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-023-00320-x · Cited by 49
“It has been predicted that CTL epitope mutations start from a cheap mutation with a large loss of recognition moving towards more expensive mutations with a larger cross-reactivity 60 .”
InfluentialBieberich, F., Vazquez-Lombardi, R., Yermanos, A., Ehling, R. A., Mason, D. M., Wagner, B., Kapetanovic, E., Roberto, R. B. D., Weber, C. R., Savic, M., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.701085 · Cited by 45
“Paired TCR and BCR (VDJ) Analysis Clonotype definition was adjusted to count all sequences as clonal if they met the following criteria: (1) Same V and J gene usage in both chains, (2) Same CDR3 length in both chains and (3) 80% amino acid sequence similarity in the CDR3 region of the TCRb (T cells) or BCR heavy chain…”
BackgroundMethodDysregulated Immune Responses in SARS-CoV-2-Infected Patients: A Comprehensive Overview
Kudryavtsev, I. V., Rubinstein, A., Головкин, А. С., Kalinina, O., Vasilyev, K., Георгиевна, Р. Л., & Isakova–Sivak, I. (2022) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v14051082 · Cited by 47
“Longitudinal analysis of S-specific Th cells showed that in convalescent peripheral blood, CD45RA–CCR7– Th cells were gradually replaced by CD45RA–CCR7+ central memory Th cells [92].”
BackgroundLafon, E., Diem, G., Witting, C., Zaderer, V., Bellmann-Weiler, R. M., Reindl, M., Bauer, A., Griesmacher, A., Fux, V., Hoermann, G., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.684014 · Cited by 46
“investigated memory T cells in a cohort of COVID-19 cases with broad range of severity and found 70% of subjects had SARS-CoV-2 memory CD8 T cell and 93% had memory CD4 T cell 1 month post-symptoms onset (20–50 days) (17).”
BackgroundResultUsing excess deaths and testing statistics to determine COVID-19 mortalities
Böttcher, L., D'Orsogna, M. R., & Chou, T. (2021) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-021-00748-2 · Cited by 48
Immunity to SARS-CoV-2: Lessons Learned
FERGIE, J. E., & Srivastava, A. K. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.654165 · Cited by 46
Self organizing maps for the parametric analysis of COVID-19 SEIRS delayed model
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How long does covid-19 immunity last?
Baraniuk, C. (2021) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.n1605 · Cited by 45
Vaccinating people who have had covid-19: why doesn’t natural immunity count in the US?
Block, J. (2021) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.n2101 · Cited by 46
Performance of the T-SPOTⓇ.COVID test for detecting SARS-CoV-2-responsive T cells
Kruse, M., Dark, C., Aspden, M., Cochrane, D., Competiello, R., Peltz, M., Torres, L., Wrighton-Smith, P., & Dudek, M. (2021) · International Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2021.09.073 · Cited by 42
Recruitment of highly cytotoxic CD8+ T cell receptors in mild SARS-CoV-2 infection
Wagner, K. I., Mateyka, L. M., Jarosch, S., Grass, V., Weber, S., Schober, K., Hammel, M., Burrell, T., Kalali, B. N., Poppert, H., et al. (2021) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110214 · Cited by 47
“, 2020) detectable up to 6–10 months after infection (Dan et al., 2021; Jung et al., 2021; Sherina et al., 2021; Zuo et al., 2021).”
Balachandran, H., Phetsouphanh, C., Agapiou, D., Adhikari, A., Rodrigo, C., Hammoud, M., Shrestha, L. B., Keoshkerian, E., Gupta, M., Turville, S. G., et al. (2022) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110345 · Cited by 45
“…severeacute respiratory syndromecoronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-specific neutralizing antibodies, even at low titers, has been associated with protection from severe disease (Dan et al., 2021; Dispinseri et al., 2021; Lau et al., 2021; Mumoli et al., 2020; Stephens and McElrath, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialDesmecht, S., Tashkeev, A., Moussaoui, M. E., Maréchal, N., Perée, H., Tokunaga, Y., Fombellida-Lopez, C., Polese, B., Legrand, C., Wéry, M., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.863554 · Cited by 46
“383 Our results confirm previous findings indicating that anti-spike antibodies are very 384 well correlated with neutralizing antibodies (27)(28).”
ResultThe MegaPool Approach to Characterize Adaptive CD4+ and CD8+ T Cell Responses
Antunes, R. D. S., Weiskopf, D., Sidney, J., Rubiro, P., Peters, B., Arlehamn, C. S. L., Grifoni, A., & Sette, A. (2023) · Current Protocols · doi:10.1002/cpz1.934 · Cited by 44
“…Brasu et al., 2022; Bueno et al., 2022; Cheon et al., 2021; Chiuppesi et al., 2022; Costa et al., 2022; da Silva Antunes, Pallikkuth, et al., 2021; Dan et al., 2021; Dentone et al., 2022; Galvez et al., 2022; Gao, Cai, Grifoni, et al., 2022; Gao, Cai, Wullimann, et al., 2022; Garcia-Valtanen et…”
Self-citationTesting Fractional doses of COVID-19 Vaccines
Więcek, W., Ahuja, A., Chaudhuri, E., Kremer, M. R., Gomes, A. S., Snyder, C. M., Tabarrok, A. T., & Tan, B. J. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2116932119 · Cited by 43
“Protection from severe outcomes of COVID-19 may be longer lasting (30).”
Comprehensive literature review on COVID-19 vaccines and role of SARS-CoV-2 variants in the pandemic
Yap, C., Ali, A., Prabhakar, A., Prabhakar, A., Pal, A., Lim, Y. Y., & Kakodkar, P. (2021) · Therapeutic Advances in Vaccines and Immunotherapy · doi:10.1177/25151355211059791 · Cited by 48
Zhang, Y., Yan, Q., Luo, K., He, P., Hou, R., Zhao, X., Wang, Q., Yi, H., Liang, H., Deng, Y., et al. (2021) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.01600-21 · Cited by 44
Montesinos, I., Dahma, H., Wolff, F., Dauby, N., Delaunoy, S., Wuyts, M., Detemmerman, C., Duterme, C., Vandenberg, O., Martin, C., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Virology · doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2021.104988 · Cited by 44
“Moreover, a recent report indicates an increase in the number of circulating memory B cells eight months after infection [18].”
COVID-19: systemic pathology and its implications for therapy
Shen, Q., Li, J., Zhang, Z., Guo, S., Wang, Q., An, X., & Chang, H. (2021) · International Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijbs.65911 · Cited by 51
“The majority of SARS-CoV-2 memory CD8+ T cells were mainly terminally differentiated effector memory cells (TEMRA), with small populations of central memory (TCM) and effector memory (TEM) [64].”
BackgroundInfluentialDurability of ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccination in people living with HIV
Ogbe, A., Pace, M. J., Bittaye, M., Tipoe, T., Adele, S., Alagaratnam, J., Aley, P. K., Ansari, M. A., Bara, A., Broadhead, S., et al. (2022) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.157031 · Cited by 44
“This comprehensive analysis of humoral and cellular 382 immunity is consistent with studies of COVID-19 in healthy adults and PWH showing 383 durable immune responses up to 7 months post infection [19, 59, 63, 64].”
Farroni, C., Diamanti, A. P., Aiello, A., Nicastri, E., Laganà, B., Agrati, C., Castilletti, C., Meschi, S., Colavita, F., Cuzzi, G., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.846753 · Cited by 46
COVID-19 Infection in Children: Diagnosis and Management
Zhu, F. H., & Ang, J. Y. (2022) · Current Infectious Disease Reports · doi:10.1007/s11908-022-00779-0 · Cited by 53
Havervall, S., Falk, A. J., Klingström, J., Ng, H., Greilert‐Norin, N., Gabrielsson, L., Salomonsson, A., Isaksson, E., Rudberg, A., Hellström, C., et al. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0262169 · Cited by 45
Rapid, scalable assessment of SARS-CoV-2 cellular immunity by whole-blood PCR
Schwarz, M. C., Torre, D., Lozano‐Ojalvo, D., Tan, A. T., Tabaglio, T., Mzoughi, S., Sánchez-Tarjuelo, R., Bert, N. L., Lim, J. M. E., Hatem, S., et al. (2022) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-022-01347-6 · Cited by 42
Self-citationCOVID ‐19 and plasma cells: Is there long‐lived protection?*
Nguyen, D. C., Lamothe, P. A., Woodruff, M. C., Saini, A. S., Faliti, C. E., Sanz, I., & Lee, F. E.-H. (2022) · Immunological Reviews · doi:10.1111/imr.13115 · Cited by 48
Self-citationParino, F., Zino, L., Calafiore, G. C., & Rizzo, A. (2021) · International Journal of Robust and Nonlinear Control · doi:10.1002/rnc.5728 · Cited by 45
“We assume that recovered individuals cannot be infected again for the duration of our simulation, which is consistent with the clinical literature that founds evidence that immunity lasts at least 6–8 months.”
Jangra, S., Landers, J. J., Rathnasinghe, R., O’Konek, J. J., Janczak, K. W., Cascalho, M., Kennedy, A. A., Tai, A. W., Baker, J. R., Schotsaert, M., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.729189 · Cited by 44
Mukund, K., Nayak, P., Ashokkumar, C., Rao, S., Almeda, J. L., Betancourt-Garcia, M. M., Sindhi, R. K., & Subramaniam, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.738073 · Cited by 45
A Review of SARS-CoV-2 Disease (COVID-19): Pandemic in Our Time
Al‐Awwal, N., Dweik, F., Mahdi, S., El‐Dweik, M., & Anderson, S. H. (2022) · Pathogens · doi:10.3390/pathogens11030368 · Cited by 50
Early human B cell signatures of the primary antibody response to mRNA vaccination
Kardava, L., Rachmaninoff, N., Lau, W. W., Buckner, C. M., Trihemasava, K., de Assis, F. L., Wang, W., Zhang, X., Wang, Y., Chiang, C.-I., et al. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2204607119 · Cited by 43
Dispinseri, S., Lampasona, V., Secchi, M., Cara, A., Bazzigaluppi, E., Negri, D. R. M., Brigatti, C., Pirillo, M. F., Marzinotto, I., Borghi, M., et al. (2021) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgab055 · Cited by 43
“There is cumulative evidence showing that after SARS-CoV-2 infection the kinetics of the humoral response follows a classical pattern, and late responses are characterized by low or sometimes undetectable levels of IgM and modest IgA, but, at least up to 6 months, a mostly a robust IgG response associated with neutral…”
BackgroundTerpos, E., Trougakos, I. P., Karalis, V. D., Ntanasis‐Stathopoulos, I., Gumeni, S., Apostolakou, F., Sklirou, A. D., Gavriatopoulou, M., Skourti, S., Kastritis, E., et al. (2021) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells10081942 · Cited by 44
Ontañón, J., Blas, J., de Cabo, C., Santos, C. P., Taravilla, E. R.-E., García, A., Marı́n, L., Sáez, L., Beato, J. L., Rada, R., et al. (2021) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103656 · Cited by 41
“Never-theless, several experiments have shown high levels of correlation between assessment of the anti-RBD binding antibodies used in this study and neutralizing antibodies [7,15].”
Abela, I. A., Pasin, C., Schwarzmüller, M., Epp, S., Sickmann, M., Schanz, M., Rusert, P., Weber, J., Schmutz, S., Audigé, A., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-27040-x · Cited by 45
T cell perturbations persist for at least 6 months following hospitalization for COVID-19
Govender, M., Hopkins, F. R., Göransson, R., Svanberg, C., Shankar, E. M., Hjorth, M., Nilsdotter‐Augustinsson, Å., Sjöwall, J., Nyström, S. N., & Larsson, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.931039 · Cited by 43
“Some studies provide clear evidence that these antibodies are detected only for a few months after infection (115, 116), whereas others support a minimum of 6 months (23, 117).”
BackgroundSARS-CoV-2 journey: from alpha variant to omicron and its sub-variants
Hattab, D., Amer, M. F. A., Al‐Alami, Z. M., & Bakhtiar, A. (2024) · Infection · doi:10.1007/s15010-024-02223-y · Cited by 48
“Neutralizing antibodies start to appear in the serum of COVID-19-infected individuals within ten days after the onset of symptoms and persist in circulation for a minimum of eight months [70, 71].”
BackgroundHindsight is 2020? Lessons in global health governance one year into the pandemic
Hassan, I., Mukaigawara, M., King, L., Fernandes, G., & Sridhar, D. (2021) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01272-2 · Cited by 44
Optimal, near-optimal, and robust epidemic controlPreprint
Morris, D. H. (2021) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · Cited by 52
Optimal, near-optimal, and robust epidemic control
Morris, D. H., Rossine, F. W., Plotkin, J. B., & Levin, S. (2020) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/9gr7q · Cited by 41
Preexisting and Post–COVID-19 Immune Responses to SARS-CoV-2 in Patients with Cancer
Bilich, T., Roerden, M., Maringer, Y., Nelde, A., Heitmann, J. S., Dubbelaar, M. L., Peter, A., Hörber, S., Bauer, J., Rieth, J., et al. (2021) · Cancer Discovery · doi:10.1158/2159-8290.cd-21-0191 · Cited by 41
Sandberg, J. T., Varnaitė, R., Christ, W., Chen, P., Muvva, J. R., Maleki, K. T., García, M., Dzidic, M., Folkesson, E., Skagerberg, M., et al. (2021) · Clinical & Translational Immunology · doi:10.1002/cti2.1306 · Cited by 45
“Functional T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 have been detected in both the acute phase of disease and in convalescence, primarily targeting structural proteins including spike, nucleocapsid and membrane based on their higher abundance.(12,16,32,50,51) In other disease settings, it has been shown that polyfunctional T ce…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialChen, Z., Zhang, Y., Wang, M., Islam, M. S., Liao, P., Hu, Y., & Chen, X. (2022) · International Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijbs.73583 · Cited by 42
“Also, these T cell responses last for at least 6 months, as revealed by an 8-month-long serological measurement at a population scale [41].”
BackgroundDhakal, S., Yu, T., Yin, A., Pisanic, N., Demko, Z. O., Antar, A. A. R., Cox, A. L., Heaney, C. D., Manabe, Y. C., & Klein, S. L. (2022) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofac677 · Cited by 44
Liu, Y., Wang, Z., Zhuang, X., Zhang, S., Chen, Z., Zou, Y., Sheng, J., Li, T., Tai, W., Yu, J., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37926-7 · Cited by 43
“Memory B cells survive in the body for a long time after infection or vaccination, thus remaining ready to quickly recognize and combat anyreinfectionbypathogens 39,40 .”
Follmann, D. A., O’Brien, M. P., Fintzi, J., Fay, M. P., Montefiori, D. C., Mateja, A., Herman, G. A., Hooper, A. T., Turner, K. C., Chan, K.-C., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39292-w · Cited by 40
Chaurasia, P., Nguyen, T. H. O., Rowntree, L. C., Juno, J. A., Wheatley, A. K., Kent, S. J., Kedzierska, K., Rossjohn, J., & Petersen, J. (2021) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101065 · Cited by 45
Wu, D., Kolesnikov, A. V., Yin, R. M., Guest, J. D., Gowthaman, R., Shmelev, A., Serdyuk, Y. V., Dianov, D. V., Efimov, G. A., Pierce, B. G., et al. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-27669-8 · Cited by 45
Functional reprogramming of monocytes in patients with acute and convalescent severe COVID-19
Brauns, E., Azouz, A., Grimaldi, D., Xiao, H., Thomas, S., Nguyen, M., Olislagers, V., Duc, I. V., Cano, C. O., del Mármol, V., et al. (2022) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.154183 · Cited by 42
“In the context of COVID-19, they could also be the consequence of persistent viral antigen expression (detected up to 4 months after the onset of the disease) (48) or result from the modulation of the adaptive compartment, as the majority of SARS-CoV-2–specific CD8 T cells acquire a terminally differentiated phenotype…”
BackgroundSARS-CoV-2—The Role of Natural Immunity: A Narrative Review
Diani, S., Leonardi, E. A., Cavezzi, A., Ferrari, S., Iacono, O., Limoli, A., Bouslenko, Z., Natalini, D., Conti, S., Mantovani, M., et al. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11216272 · Cited by 44
Rockstroh, A., Wolf, J., Fertey, J., Kalbitz, S., Schroth, S., Lübbert, C., Ulbert, S., & Borte, S. (2021) · Emerging Microbes & Infections · doi:10.1080/22221751.2021.1913973 · Cited by 39
“Yet, it has to be clarified whether this would have consequences for potential re-infections or if memory Band T-cells could provide sustainable protection against COVID-19 [9,13].”
BackgroundInfluentialWestheim, A. J. F., Bitorina, A. V., Theys, J., & Shiri‐Sverdlov, R. (2021) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.13313 · Cited by 44
COVID-19: Relationship and Impact on Breastfeeding—A Systematic Review
Pérez-Bermejo, M., Peris-Ochando, B., & Murillo-Llorente, M. T. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13092972 · Cited by 44
“The greater response of CD4+ T lymphocytes compared to CD8+ lymphocytes is consistent with the findings of another report [32] that analysed the response six to eight months after infection.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHeaney, C. D., Pisanic, N., Randad, P. R., Kruczynski, K. L., Howard, T., Zhu, X., Littlefield, K. E., Patel, E. U., Shrestha, R., Laeyendecker, O. B., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Virology · doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2021.104997 · Cited by 42
Durability of SARS-CoV-2–Specific T-Cell Responses at 12 Months Postinfection
Lu, Z., Laing, E. D., DaMata, J. P., Pohida, K., Tso, M. S., Samuels, E. C., Epsi, N. J., Dorjbal, B., Lake, C. M., Richard, S. A., et al. (2021) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiab543 · Cited by 44
Hamm, S. R., Møller, D. L., Pérez‐Alós, L., Hansen, C. B., Pries‐Heje, M. M., Heftdal, L. D., Hasselbalch, R. B., Fogh, K., Madsen, J. R., Armenteros, J. J. A., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.832501 · Cited by 43
Liang, X., Xu, Q., Jia, Z.-J., Wu, M., Liu, Y., Lin, L., Liu, L., & Yang, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.876037 · Cited by 41
“The decay of vaccine-induced anti-Spike IgG and anti-Spike IgA were faster than that those reported after natural SARS-CoV-2 infection (12).”
BackgroundPrevalent and immunodominant CD8 T cell epitopes are conserved in SARS-CoV-2 variants
Meyer, S., Blaas, I., Bollineni, R. C., Delić-Šarac, M., Tran, T. T., Knetter, C. F., Dai, K., Madssen, T. S., Vaage, J. T., Gustavsen, A., et al. (2023) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2023.111995 · Cited by 41
Malipiero, G., Moratto, A., Infantino, M. G., D’Agaro, P., Piscianz, E., Manfredi, M., Grossi, V., Benvenuti, E., Bulgaresi, M., Benucci, M., et al. (2021) · Immunologic Research · doi:10.1007/s12026-021-09226-z · Cited by 42
Peculiarities of the T Cell Immune Response in COVID-19
Kudlay, D. A., Кофиади, И. А., & Khaitov, M. R. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10020242 · Cited by 43
“(2021) showed that the level of T cells in individuals who received 2 doses of mRNA vaccine is comparable to the peak of the T cell response in COVID-19-recovered patients 3–6 months after the onset of symptoms [8].”
BackgroundBonnet, B., Chabrolles, H., Archimbaud, C., Brebion, A., Cosme, J., Dutheil, F., Lambert, C., Junda, M., Mirand, A., Ollier, A., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.842912 · Cited by 43
“Several reports suggested a decline in anti-spike specific CD4+ immune response after a few months (14, 15) whereas, in recent reports, cell memory responses were observed to be relatively stable over 8 months following natural infection with SARSCoV-2 (16–19).”
BackgroundJassat, W., Karim, S. S. A., Mudara, C., Welch, R., Ozougwu, L., Groome, M. J., Govender, N., von Gottberg, A., Wolter, N., DATCOV Author Group, et al. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3996320 · Cited by 42
Tarke, A., Coelho, C. H., Zhang, Z., Dan, J. M., Yu, E. D., Methot, N., Bloom, N. I., Goodwin, B., Phillips, E. J., Mallal, S. A., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.12.28.474333 · Cited by 42
“The continued maturation of B cell responses over time (Cho et al., 2021; Dan et al., 2021; Goel et al., 2021) may play an important role in adapting SARS-CoV-2 immunity to VOCs.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCOVID-19 spread, detection, and dynamics in Bogota, Colombia
Laajaj, R., De Los Rios, C., Sarmiento-Barbieri, I., Aristizabal, D., Behrentz, E., Bernal, R., Buitrago, G., Cucunubá, Z., de la Hoz, F., Gaviria, A., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-25038-z · Cited by 38
Sagara, I., Woodford, J., Koné, M., Assadou, M. H., Katilé, A., Attaher, O., Zéguimé, A., Doucoure, M., Higbee, E., Lane, J., et al. (2021) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciab589 · Cited by 41
“Despite the relatively mild illness reported, the durability of spike protein immunoglobulin G antibodies suggests a relatively long-lasted humoral response in our study population, and seropositivity may be a surrogate marker for longer term cellular immunity [20].”
BackgroundDurable antibody response one year after hospitalization for COVID-19: A longitudinal cohort study
Masiá, M., Fernández‐González, M., Telenti, G., Agulló, V., García, J. A., Padilla, S., García‐Abellán, J., Galiana, A., Gonzalo-Jiménez, N., & Gutiérrez, F. (2021) · Journal of Autoimmunity · doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2021.102703 · Cited by 41
Lv, J., Wu, H., Xu, J., & Liu, J. (2022) · Infectious Diseases of Poverty · doi:10.1186/s40249-022-00977-x · Cited by 40
“Decreases over time of vaccine-induced neutralising antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 have been observed with several COVID-19 vaccines [40, 41].”
BackgroundThe past, current and future epidemiological dynamic of SARS-CoV-2
Balloux, F., Tan, C. C. S., Swadling, L., Richard, D., Jenner, C., Maini, M. K., & van Dorp, L. (2022) · Oxford Open Immunology · doi:10.1093/oxfimm/iqac003 · Cited by 41
“SARS-CoV-2 binding and neutralizing antibodies show measurable waning post-infection [226, 234, 235], which may correlate with risk of breakthrough infection [236].”
BackgroundVadrevu, K. M., Ganneru, B., Reddy, S., Jogdand, H., Raju, D., Praturi, U., Sapkal, G. N., Yadav, P. D., Reddy, P., Verma, S., et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-16097-3 · Cited by 39
Amellal, H., Assaid, N., Charoute, H., Akarid, K., Maaroufi, A., Ezzikouri, S., & Sarih, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0288557 · Cited by 40
“According to a recent comprehensive study examining T and B cell responses in individuals who have recovered from COVID-19, significant immune memory is generated after the infection, with approximately 95% of participants maintaining immune memory around 6 months after their initial infection [28].”
BackgroundSARS-CoV-2 correlates of protection from infection against variants of concern
Sun, K., Bhiman, J. N., Tempia, S., Kleynhans, J., Madzorera, V. S., Mkhize, Q., Kaldine, H., McMorrow, M., Wolter, N., Moyes, J., et al. (2024) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-024-03131-2 · Cited by 45
“The waning half-life of protection not mediated by nAbs was estimated at approximately 4 months in our study, comparable to the reported waning timescale of T cell immunity 38,39 .”
Hope, J. L., & Bradley, L. M. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abf6446 · Cited by 43
Jahn, B., Sroczynski, G., Bicher, M., Rippinger, C., Mühlberger, N., Santamaria, J., Urach, C., Schomaker, M., Stojkov, I., Schmid, D., et al. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9050434 · Cited by 42
Understanding the Challenges and Uncertainties of Seroprevalence Studies for SARS-CoV-2
McConnell, D. J., Hickey, C., Bargary, N., Trela-Larsen, L., Walsh, C., Barry, M. G., & Adams, R. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18094640 · Cited by 43
“However, there are questions about the longterm persistence of antibodies in the blood of recovered COVID-19 patients, with some studies reporting that antibodies decrease to undetectable levels over time [65,66] (particularly among mild and asymptomatic patients), though other studies have shown the opposite [20,67].”
ResultLi, H., Zhang, Y., Li, D., Deng, Y., Xu, H., Zhao, C., Liu, J., Wen, D., Zhao, J., Li, Y., et al. (2021) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-021-00797-9 · Cited by 41
“Similarly, the mean pseudovirus NAb titer was ~200 in another cohort of 188 COVID-19 patients.(30) Based on a dataset of 30,082 COVID-19 positive individuals screened at Mount Sinai Health System in New York City, the average NAb titer was about 200–300 as determined by authentic SARS-CoV-2.”
BackgroundGarcía-Valtanen, P., Hope, C. M., Masavuli, M. G., Yeow, A. E. L., Balachandran, H., Mekonnen, Z. A., Al-Delfi, Z., Abayasingam, A., Agapiou, D., Stella, A. O., et al. (2022) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100651 · Cited by 43
“Convalescent AIM results were compared with naive healthy controls in all instances, corroborating significantly lower T cell frequencies (baseline levels), consistent with previous AIM studies using the same peptide pools.(22,23) In addition, a positive control consisting of human”
InfluentialSelf-citationCohen, L., Spiro, D. J., & Viboud, C. G. (2022) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1010591 · Cited by 42
“Furthermore, strong CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses against multiple proteins have been identified in the majority of COVID-19 patients [66,67,70].”
BackgroundIgM antibodies derived from memory B cells are potent cross-variant neutralizers of SARS-CoV-2
Hale, M. R., Netland, J., Chen, Y., Thouvenel, C. D., Smith, K. N., Rich, L. M., Vanderwall, E. R., Miranda, M. C., Eggenberger, J., Hao, L., et al. (2022) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20220849 · Cited by 43
Tauzin, A., Nayrac, M., Benlarbi, M., Gong, S. Y., Gasser, R., Beaudoin-Bussières, G., Brassard, N., Laumaea, A., Vézina, D., Prévost, J., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.03.18.435972 · Cited by 41
“Group n Days between symptom onset and vaccination (median; day range) Days after vaccination (median; day range) Age (average; age range) Sex F (n) M (n) SARS-CoV-2 Naïve 16 / 21 (16 - 26) 48 (21-59) 13 3 SARS-CoV-2 Prior infection 16 266 (116-309) 21 (17 - 25) 48 (23-65) 8 8 Table 1.”
BackgroundAntibody Persistence 6 Months Post-Vaccination with BNT162b2 among Health Care Workers
Campo, F., Venuti, A., Pimpinelli, F., Abril, E., Blandino, G., Conti, L., VIRGILIO, A. D., Marco, F. D., Noia, V. D., Domenico, E. G. D., et al. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9101125 · Cited by 40
“Notwithstanding rigorous research, it is not usually predictable the kinetics, and evolution of immune memory to infection or vaccine based on the initial effector phase [2].”
BackgroundGonçalves, J., Juliano, A. M., Charepe, N., Alenquer, M., Athayde, D., Ferreira, F., Archer, M., Amorim, M. J., Serrano, F., & Soares, H. (2021) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100468 · Cited by 41
Decreased memory B cell frequencies in COVID‐19 delta variant vaccine breakthrough infection
Tay, M. Z., Rouers, A., Fong, S., Goh, Y. S., Chan, Y., Chang, Z. W., Xu, W., Tan, C. W., Chia, W. N., Torres‐Ruesta, A., et al. (2022) · EMBO Molecular Medicine · doi:10.15252/emmm.202115227 · Cited by 36
“Studies have indicated that memory B cell responses are longer lasting compared with plasma antibody levels following natural infection (Dan et al, 2021; Sakharkar et al, 2021; Turner et al, 2021).”
BackgroundChivu‐Economescu, M., Bleoţu, C., Grancea, C., Chiriac, D., Botezatu, A., Iancu, I. V., Pitica, I. M., Necula, L. G., Neagu, A. I., Matei, L., et al. (2022) · Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1111/jcmm.17186 · Cited by 39
Metadata
- Authors
- Dan, J. M., Mateus, J., Kato, Y., Hastie, K. M., Yu, E. D., Faliti, C. E., Grifoni, A., Ramirez, S. I., Haupt, S., Frazier, A., Nakao, C., Rayaprolu, V., Rawlings, S. A., Peters, B., Krammer, F., Simon, V., Saphire, E. O., Smith, D. M., Weiskopf, D., Sette, A., & Crotty, S.
- Affiliations
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology (US)
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- Corresponding author
- Dan, Jennifer M.
- Kato, Yu
- Weiskopf, Daniela
- Sette, Alessandro
- Crotty, Shane
- ORCID
- Dan, Jennifer M.
- Mateus, Jose
- Kato, Yu
- Hastie, Kathryn M.
- Yu, Esther Dawen
- Faliti, Caterina E.
- Grifoni, Alba
- Ramirez, Sydney I.
- Haupt, Sonya
- Frazier, April
- Nakao, Catherine
- Rayaprolu, Vamseedhar
- Rawlings, Stephen A.
- Peters, Bjoern
- Krammer, Florian
- Simon, Viviana
- Saphire, Erica Ollmann
- Smith, Davey M.
- Weiskopf, Daniela
- Sette, Alessandro
- Crotty, Shane
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2021-02-05
- Volume
- 371
- Issue
- 6529
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC7919858
- OpenAlex
- W3121008609
- Cited by
- 2,656
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 84 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 218 · 2023: 384 · 2022: 839 · 2021: 972
- FWCI
- 191.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- ImmPort
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Nr. 75N9301900065)
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI142742, AI135078, HHSN272201400008C, 75N93019C00051, AI007036, U01 AI141995, AI141995-03, U01 CA260541-01, AI007384)
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (INV-006133)
- Wellcome (INV-006133)
- Mastercard Incorporated (INV-006133)
- JPB Foundation
- Open Philanthropy Project (2020-215611)
- Steven and Alexandra Cohen Foundation
- John and Mary Tu Foundation
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Keywords
- SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 pandemic, immunological memory, memory B cells, CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, adaptive immune response, long-term immunity, reinfection, vaccine efficacy, immune response heterogeneity
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Antibodies, Viral, B-Lymphocytes, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Immunologic Memory, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, United States, CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes, CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes, Young Adult, Antibodies, Neutralizing, Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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