Cited by 1,291Psychometric Methodologies and TestingPsychological Testing and AssessmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

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The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale

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de Jong-Gierveld, Jenny, Kamphuls, Frans·1985·Applied Psychological Measurement

DOI 10.1177/014662168500900307

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Abstract

This paper describes an attempt to construct a measuring instrument for loneliness that meets the cri teria of a Rasch scale. Rasch (1960, 1966) proposed a latent trait model for the unidimensional scaling of di chotomous items that does not suffer from the inade quacies of classical approaches. The resulting Rasch scale of this study, which is based on data from 1,201 employed, disabled, and jobless adults, consists of five positive and six negative items. The positive items assess feelings of belongingness, whereas the negative items apply to three separate aspects of miss ing relationships. The techniques for testing the as sumptions underlying the Rasch model are compared with their counterparts from classical test theory, and the implications for the methodology of scale con struction are discussed.

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Sheikh, S., Tofique, S., Zehra, N., Amjad, R., Rasheed, M., Usman, M., Lal, S., Hooper, E., Miah, J., Husain, N., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.654143 · Cited by 6
The Association Between Loneliness and Psychiatric Symptomatology in Older Psychiatric Outpatients
Schutter, N., Holwerda, T. J., Kuipers, H., Van, R., Stek, M. L., Comijs, H. C., Peen, J., & Dekker, J. (2021) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/08919887211060022 · Cited by 6
“Loneliness was measured with the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale.33 This scale was developed for measuring loneliness in scientific surveys by means of eleven statements with five-category responses.”
Method
Predictors of healthy physiological aging across generations in a 30-year population-based cohort study: the Doetinchem Cohort Study
Loef, B., Herber-Gast, G.-C. M., Wong, A., Janssen, N., Hoekstra, J., Picavet, H. S. J., & Verschuren, W. M. M. (2023) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-023-03789-2 · Cited by 8
Which comorbidity index is more appropriate for geriatric patients from the frailty perspective?
Hafızoğlu, M., Cömertoğlu, E. O., Öztürk, Y., Kahyaoğlu, Z., Çavuşoğlu, Ç., Balcı, C., Halil, M. G., Aki, Ö. E., Cankurtaran, M., & Doğu, B. B. (2023) · European Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1007/s41999-023-00851-5 · Cited by 6
Measuring Outcomes of Multidimensional Interventions
Stolee, P. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-6231-8.10039-x · Cited by 6
Perceptions and experiences of friendship and loneliness in adolescent males with high cognitive ability and autism spectrum disorder
Berns, A. J., Liu, W. M., Ehly, S., Assouline, S. G., Kopelman, T. G., Gerken, K. C., & Ashida, S. (2016) · doi:10.17077/etd.mhtd12zn · Cited by 6
Improvements to mood, stress and loneliness following 12-week multivitamin supplementation in older adults: a randomised, placebo-controlled, trial
Docherty, S., Wetherell, M. A., McInnes, L., & Haskell‐Ramsay, C. F. (2024) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/s41430-024-01517-6 · Cited by 5
Mapping vulnerability factors of chronic emotional and social loneliness: A network analysis
van den Bulck, C. M. M., van Emmerik, A., Blanken, T. F., Kamphuis, J. H., & Dijk, C. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.02.105 · Cited by 5
Revisiting the cognitive and behavioral aspects of loneliness: Insights from different measurement approaches
Skoko, A., Seewer, N., Mund, M., & Krieger, T. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0321931 · Cited by 5
“Most studies thus far used scales such as UCLA Loneliness Scale [UCLA-LS; 28] or, the Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale [RTLS; 29] (also known as the De-Jong Gierveld Scale) to assess loneliness.”
The effectiveness of artificial agents on loneliness reduction in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Fu, Z., Yan, M., Han, X., Zhang, K., & Zhao, X. (2025) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2025.106056 · Cited by 6
Investigating the effectiveness of interventions intended to reduce loneliness using psychological strategies and a theory of change: a systematic review of interventional studies and meta-analysis
Birken, M., Ikhtabi, S., Steare, T., Johnson, S., Benedetto, G., Lin, F., Scott, H. R., Harju‐Seppänen, J., McCloud, T. L., Shafran, R., et al. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03639-3 · Cited by 5
“We included studies that specified loneliness as the primary outcome, as measured using a validated tool, such as the UCLA Loneliness Scale [40] or the de Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale [41].”
Factor Structure of the Shortened Six-Item Version of the de Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (DJGLS-6). A Systematic Review and Testing Factor Models in a Nationally Representative Sample
Kenny, L., Hyland, P., Cloître, M., & Shevlin, M. E. (2023) · European Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.5708/ejmh.18.2023.0001 · Cited by 6
Exploring Loneliness among Korean Adults: A Concept Mapping Approach
An, S.-J., & Seo, Y.-S. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14060492 · Cited by 7
Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Group CBT-Based Intervention Aiming to Reduce Self-Stigma and Improve Recovery-Related Outcomes in People with Severe Mental Disorders: Randomised Controlled Trial
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Social Gaming to Decrease Loneliness in Older Adults: Recruitment Challenges and Attrition Analysis in a Digital Mixed Methods Feasibility Study
Châtel, B. D. L., Janssen, J. H. M., Peeters, G. M. E. E., Corten, R., Tieben, R., Deen, M., Hendriks, E. J. M., & Rikkert, M. G. M. O. (2024) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/52640 · Cited by 10
“%) experience moderate to severe loneliness [1] according to the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (DJG) [2,3].”
Method
Improving the Identification of Frailty in Long-Term Care Residents: A Cross-Sectional Study
Arrieta, H., Rezola‐Pardo, C., Sanz, B., Virgala, J., Lacunza-Zumeta, M., Rodriguez‐Larrad, A., & Irazusta, J. (2022) · Biological Research For Nursing · doi:10.1177/10998004221100797 · Cited by 5
“For CFS, myostatin remained significant in the last equations together with hand grip (p 0.005), arm-curl (p 0.005), 30-s chair-stand (p 0.005), 6mWT (p 0.005), TUG (p 0.005), gait speed (p 0.005), Berg Balance Scale (p 0.05), MoCA (p 0.005), QoL-AD (p 0.005), Goldberg Anxiety (p 0.005) and Depression (p 0.005), and D…”
MethodInfluential
Investigating the Correlation Between Spiritual Well-Being and Loneliness in Elderly Individuals in Turkey During the Covid 19 Pandemic
Polat, F., & Karasu, F. (2022) · Mersin Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Lokman Hekim Tıp Tarihi ve Folklorik Tıp Dergisi · doi:10.31020/mutftd.1111419 · Cited by 5
Mental health, social integration and support of informal caregivers during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic: A population-based representative study from Germany
Zwar, L., König, H., & Hajek, A. (2023) · Archives of gerontology and geriatrics (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2023.105085 · Cited by 5
The effect of sociodemographic characteristics and polypharmacy on loneliness and social isolation in community-dwelling older adults
Sarı, E. S., Özdemir, S. Ç., Çakmak, V. S., & Kurt, F. (2024) · Geriatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2024.10.023 · Cited by 5
Friends as Tools: Exploring the Role of Dispositional Greed in Social Relationships
Hoyer, K., Zeelenberg, M., & Breugelmans, S. M. (2025) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506251324692 · Cited by 5
“All studies included the 6-item Loneliness Scale (De Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985).”
Pulling out all the stops: what motivates 65+ year olds with depressive symptoms to participate in an outreaching preference-led intervention programme?
van Beljouw, I. M. J., Heerings, M., Abma, T., Laurant, M. G. H., Veer-Tazelaar, P. J. V., Baur, V. E., Stek, M. L., van Marwijk, H., & van Exel, E. R. (2014) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2014.944090 · Cited by 5
“The Loneliness Scale (De Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985) measured the amount of loneliness a subject experiences by citing 11 statements such as ‘I miss having people around me’, that can be rated on a 3-point rating scale.”
Method
Social participation and subjective well-being of long-term unemployed: why is paid work so hard to substitute for?
van Bruggen, A. C. (2000) · Social indicators research series · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4291-5_8 · Cited by 4
Asociación entre el nivel de soledad percibido y el uso de Internet en las personas sin hogar
Valerio-Ureña, G., Herrera-Murillo, D. J., & Rodríguez-Martínez, M. D. C. (2020) · Saúde e Sociedade · doi:10.1590/s0104-12902020181116 · Cited by 5
Factors Associated with Depression in Middle-Aged and Elderly People in Romania
Rada, C. (2020) · Psichologija · doi:10.15388/psichol.2020.14 · Cited by 7
Internet Use and Loneliness Among Older Adults: The Moderating Role of Self-perceptions of Ageing
Xu, W., & Köttl, H. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-50232-4_26 · Cited by 9
Studying subjective hearing loss in older adults measured by speech, spatial, and quality of hearing scale within the framework of the ICF core set for hearing loss
Alfakir, R. (2021) · Hearing Balance and Communication · doi:10.1080/21695717.2021.1909329 · Cited by 5
Blindness, But Not HMHA Anosmia, Predicts Loneliness: A Psychophysical Study
Sorokowska, A., Janczak, A., Ferdenzi, C., Baldovini, N., & Oleszkiewicz, A. (2021) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672211034376 · Cited by 5
“Self-assessed “loneliness” was measured with the use of the 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (de Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985) in a Polish adaptation by Grygiel and collaborators (2013).”
Method
Promoting Recovery among Older Adults with Serious Mental Illness
Dell, N. A., Murphy, A. M., Stewart, M., Sasaki, N., & Klier, M. (2022) · Social Work · doi:10.1093/sw/swac003 · Cited by 5
Problem gambling among older people. An Italian study on habits, representations, levels of engagement and psychosocial determinants
Venuleo, C., Marinaci, T., & Mossi, P. (2021) · Journal of Gambling Issues · doi:10.4309/jgi.2021.47.3 · Cited by 5
Verschillen in leefstijl en gezondheid tussen mensen met en zonder schulden
van Rijnsoever, M. P., Tromp, E., Waterlander, W. E., Schütz, F. N., & Steenhuis, I. H. (2011) · TSG - Tijdschrift voor gezondheidswetenschappen · doi:10.1007/s12508-011-0017-1 · Cited by 4
Actual use of Computers and the Internet by Older Adults
Slegers, K., & van Boxtel, M. P. J. (2012) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-1966-1.ch009 · Cited by 5
Cognitive and Psychosocial Associations of Hearing Loss in Older Adults
Moseley, S. (2018) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 5
Loneliness
Mullins, L. C. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0-12-370870-2/00115-3 · Cited by 5
Lonely, Anxious, and Unhappy: The Psychosocial Toll of Digital Game Addiction in University Students
Kaya, F., Bayzan, Ş., Bhais, A. Z. B., & Gün, A. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-025-01568-1 · Cited by 4
“The Loneliness Scale developed by Jenny De Jong-Gierveld and Kamphuls (1985) and validated and adapted into Turkish by Çelikbaş and Tatar (2021) was used to determine the loneliness levels of the participants.”
The relationships between frailty and depression, loneliness, and self-neglect in older adults: A cross-sectional study
Adıgüzel, Y., Gencer, S., İlhan, N., & Aştı, T. A. (2025) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2025.151997 · Cited by 4
Predicting depressive symptoms among Polish university students through sociodemographic and lifestyle factors
Kożybska, M., Starkowska, A., Szpakow, A., & Fedortsiv, O. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-27728-w · Cited by 4

Authors: de Jong-Gierveld, J., & Kamphuls, F.
Affiliations: Free University, Amsterdam
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
Venue: Applied Psychological Measurement
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 1985-09
Volume: 9
Issue: 3
Pages: 289-299
ISSN: 0146-6216 (ISSN-L)
1552-3497
DOI: 10.1177/014662168500900307
OpenAlex: W1928146223
Cited by: 1,291
References: 35
Citations by year: 2026: 84 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 62 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 1.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
purl.umn.edu
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Applied Psychological Measurement (publishedVersion)
University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords: loneliness, Rasch model, scale development, latent trait models, dichotomous items, sense of belonging, classical test theory comparison

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The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale

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