Cited by 1,291Psychometric Methodologies and TestingPsychological Testing and AssessmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

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The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale

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de Jong-Gierveld, Jenny, Kamphuls, Frans·1985·Applied Psychological Measurement

DOI 10.1177/014662168500900307

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Abstract

This paper describes an attempt to construct a measuring instrument for loneliness that meets the cri teria of a Rasch scale. Rasch (1960, 1966) proposed a latent trait model for the unidimensional scaling of di chotomous items that does not suffer from the inade quacies of classical approaches. The resulting Rasch scale of this study, which is based on data from 1,201 employed, disabled, and jobless adults, consists of five positive and six negative items. The positive items assess feelings of belongingness, whereas the negative items apply to three separate aspects of miss ing relationships. The techniques for testing the as sumptions underlying the Rasch model are compared with their counterparts from classical test theory, and the implications for the methodology of scale con struction are discussed.

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Background
A four-domain approach of frailty explored in the Doetinchem Cohort Study
van Oostrom, S. H., van der A, D. L., Rietman, M. L., Picavet, H. S. J., Lette, M., Verschuren, W. M. M., de Bruin, S. R., & Spijkerman, A. M. W. (2017) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-017-0595-0 · Cited by 71
Loneliness declines across birth cohorts: The impact of mastery and self-efficacy.
Suanet, B., & van Tilburg, T. G. (2019) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000357 · Cited by 74
Socio-demographic characteristics associated with emotional and social loneliness among older adults
Fierloos, I. N., Tan, S. S., Williams, G., Alhambra‐Borrás, T., Koppelaar, E., Bilajac, L., Verma, A., Markaki, A., Mattace-Raso, F. U. S., Vasiljev, V., et al. (2021) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-021-02058-4 · Cited by 72
Loneliness during COVID-19: Development and influencing factors
Lampraki, C., Hoffman, A., Roquet, A., & Jopp, D. S. (2022) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265900 · Cited by 68
“Social and emotional loneliness were measured with the short De Jong Gierveld loneliness scale [43].”
Method
“Being all alone makes me sad”: loneliness in older adults with depressive symptoms
van Beljouw, I. M. J., van Exel, E. R., Gierveld, J. D. J., Comijs, H. C., Heerings, M., Stek, M. L., & van Marwijk, H. (2014) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610214000581 · Cited by 80
Predictors of loneliness and different types of social isolation of rural-living older adults in the United Kingdom
de Koning, J. L., Stathi, A., & Richards, S. H. (2016) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x16000696 · Cited by 78
Personal Relationships, Social Support, and Loneliness
Gierveld, J. D. J. (1989) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/026540758900600204 · Cited by 66
Olfactory Dysfunction in Older Adults is Associated with Feelings of Depression and Loneliness
Sivam, A., Wroblewski, K., Alkorta‐Aranburu, G., Barnes, L. L., Wilson, R. S., Bennett, D. A., & Pinto, J. M. (2016) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjv088 · Cited by 67
The Impact of Change in Cognitive Functioning and Cognitive Decline on Disability, Well-Being, and the Use of Healthcare Services in Older Persons
Comijs, H. C., Dik, M. G., Aartsen, M., Deeg, D. J. H., & Jonker, C. (2005) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000084557 · Cited by 66
Health effects of unemployment—II. men and women
Leeflang, R. L. I., Klein-Hesselink, D. J., & Spruit, I. P. (1992) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(92)90295-2 · Cited by 66
Does Loneliness Have a Cost? A Population-Wide Study of the Association Between Loneliness and Healthcare Expenditure
Meisters, R., Westra, D., Putrik, P., Bosma, H., Ruwaard, D., & Jansen, M. W. J. (2021) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.3389/ijph.2021.581286 · Cited by 84
“Independent Variable The main factor of interest in this study is loneliness, a selfreported measure based on the 11-item de Jong Gierveld scale (22), taken from the Health Survey.”
Method
Do We Become More Lonely With Age? A Coordinated Data Analysis of Nine Longitudinal Studies
Graham, E. K., Beck, E. D., Jackson, K., Yoneda, T. B., McGhee, C., Pieramici, L., Atherton, O. E., Luo, J., Willroth, E. C., Steptoe, A., et al. (2024) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976241242037 · Cited by 73
“The LISS study used the Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale (De Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985).”
Method
Lonely at the bottom: a cross-sectional study on being ill, poor, and lonely
Bosma, H., Jansen, M. W. J., Schefman, S., Hajema, K., & FERON, F. J. M. (2015) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2014.11.016 · Cited by 65
The influence of differing social ties on decline in physical functioning among older people with and without chronic diseases: The Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam
Bisschop, M. I., Kriegsman, D. M. W., van Tilburg, T. G., Penninx, B. W. J. H., van Eijk, J. T. M., & Deeg, D. J. H. (2003) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/bf03324496 · Cited by 66
The Community Navigator Study: Results from a feasibility randomised controlled trial of a programme to reduce loneliness for people with complex anxiety or depression
Lloyd‐Evans, B., Frerichs, J., Stefanidou, T., Bone, J. K., Pinfold, V., Lewis, G., Billings, J., Barber, N., Chhapia, A., Chipp, B., et al. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0233535 · Cited by 62
Social capital, age and religiosity in people who are lonely
Lauder, W., Mummery, K. W., & Sharkey, S. S. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006.01192.x · Cited by 70
Posttraumatic stress disorder and loneliness are associated over time: A longitudinal study on PTSD symptoms and loneliness, among older adults
Fox, R. J., Power, J. M., Coogan, A. N., Beekman, A. T. F., van Tilburg, T. G., & Hyland, P. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113846 · Cited by 71
The UCLA loneliness scale: Invariance of social structural characteristics
Allen, R. L., & Oshagan, H. (1995) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00025-2 · Cited by 63
The prevalence and impact of risk factors for ethnic differences in loneliness
Visser, M. J., & Fakiri, F. E. (2016) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckw115 · Cited by 69
Living on the Edge: Social Exclusion and the Receipt of Informal Care in Older People
Dahlberg, L., & McKee, K. (2016) · Journal of Aging Research · doi:10.1155/2016/6373101 · Cited by 63
Advances in Clinical Personality Measurement: An Item Response Theory Analysis of the MMPI-2 PSY-5 Scales
Rouse, S. V., Finger, M. S., & Butcher, J. N. (1999) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jp720212 · Cited by 63
“A few published studies (Carter & Wilkinson, 1984; Chang, 1996; de JongGierveld & Kamphius, 1985) have used a one-parameter model that only compares items on the difficulty (b) parameter.”
Loneliness is associated with an increased risk of sedentary life in older Israelis
Netz, Y., Goldsmith, R., Shimony, T., Arnon, M., & Zeev, A. (2013) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2012.715140 · Cited by 58
Four-year course of quality of life and obsessive–compulsive disorder
Remmerswaal, K. C. P., Batelaan, N. M., Hoogendoorn, A. W., van der Wee, N. J. A., van Oppen, P., & van Balkom, A. J. L. M. (2019) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-019-01779-7 · Cited by 62
Loneliness, exchange orientation, and reciprocity in friendships
Buunk, B. P., & Prins, K. S. (1998) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.1998.tb00156.x · Cited by 62
The Effects of Neighbourhoods on Size of Social Network of the Elderly and Loneliness: A Multilevel Approach
Moorer, P., & Suurmeijer, T. P. B. M. (2001) · Urban Studies · doi:10.1080/00420980125431 · Cited by 62
How do cat owners, dog owners and individuals without pets differ in terms of psychosocial outcomes among individuals in old age without a partner?
Hajek, A., & König, H. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2019.1647137 · Cited by 76
All the Lonely People: An Integrated Review and Research Agenda on Work and Loneliness
McCarthy, J. M., Erdoğan, B., Bauer, T. N., Kudret, S., & Campion, E. D. (2025) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063241313320 · Cited by 77
Loneliness mediates the relationship between internalised stigma and depression among patients with psychotic disorders
Świtaj, P., Grygiel, P., Anczewska, M., & Wciórka, J. (2013) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764013513442 · Cited by 61
“Loneliness can be defined as ‘a situation experienced by the individual as one where there is an unpleasant or inadmissible lack of (quality of) certain relationships’ (De Jong Gierveld, 1987, p. 120).”
Method
Preventing social isolation in later life: findings and insights from a pilot Queensland intervention study
Bartlett, H., Warburton, J., Lui, C., Peach, L., & Carroll, M. T. C. (2012) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x12000463 · Cited by 63
Propiedades psicométricas del Cuestionario de Apoyo Social Funcional y de la Escala de Soledad en adultos mayores no institucionalizados en España
Ayala, A., Rodríguez‐Blázquez, C., Payo, B. F., Forjaz, M. J., Martínez‐Martín, P., Fernández‐Mayoralas, G., & Rojo‐Pérez, F. (2012) · Gaceta Sanitaria · doi:10.1016/j.gaceta.2011.08.009 · Cited by 61
Posttraumatic stress and maladjustment among adult burn survivors 1 to 2 years postburn Part II: the interview data
Taal, L., & Faber, A. W. (1998) · Burns · doi:10.1016/s0305-4179(98)00053-9 · Cited by 61
Social and psychological characteristics of elderly visually handicapped patients with the Charles Bonnet Syndrome
Teunisse, R. J., Cruysberg, J. R. M., Hoefnagels, W. H. L., Kuin, Y., Verbeek, A. L. M., & Zitman, F. G. (1999) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0010-440x(99)90133-5 · Cited by 61
Correlates of Alcohol Abstinence and At-Risk Alcohol Consumption in Older Adults with Depression: the NESDO Study
van den Berg, J. F., Kok, R., van Marwijk, H., van der Mast, R. C., Naarding, P., Voshaar, R. C. O., Stek, M. L., Verhaak, P. F. M., de Waal, M. W. M., & Comijs, H. C. (2013) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2013.04.006 · Cited by 60
Default Mode Network Connectivity and Social Dysfunction in Major Depressive Disorder
Saris, I. M. J., Penninx, B. W. J. H., Dinga, R., van Tol, M., Veltman, D. J., van der Wee, N. J. A., & Aghajani, M. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-57033-2 · Cited by 60

Authors: de Jong-Gierveld, J., & Kamphuls, F.
Affiliations: Free University, Amsterdam
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
Venue: Applied Psychological Measurement
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 1985-09
Volume: 9
Issue: 3
Pages: 289-299
ISSN: 0146-6216 (ISSN-L)
1552-3497
DOI: 10.1177/014662168500900307
OpenAlex: W1928146223
Cited by: 1,291
References: 35
Citations by year: 2026: 84 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 62 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 1.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
purl.umn.edu
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Applied Psychological Measurement (publishedVersion)
University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords: loneliness, Rasch model, scale development, latent trait models, dichotomous items, sense of belonging, classical test theory comparison

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The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale

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