Cited by 1,291Psychometric Methodologies and TestingPsychological Testing and AssessmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

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The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale

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de Jong-Gierveld, Jenny, Kamphuls, Frans·1985·Applied Psychological Measurement

DOI 10.1177/014662168500900307

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Abstract

This paper describes an attempt to construct a measuring instrument for loneliness that meets the cri teria of a Rasch scale. Rasch (1960, 1966) proposed a latent trait model for the unidimensional scaling of di chotomous items that does not suffer from the inade quacies of classical approaches. The resulting Rasch scale of this study, which is based on data from 1,201 employed, disabled, and jobless adults, consists of five positive and six negative items. The positive items assess feelings of belongingness, whereas the negative items apply to three separate aspects of miss ing relationships. The techniques for testing the as sumptions underlying the Rasch model are compared with their counterparts from classical test theory, and the implications for the methodology of scale con struction are discussed.

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“De Jong GJ, Kamphuis FH.”
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Background
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Method
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Method
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Method
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Method
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Method
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Background
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MethodInfluential
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Method
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Method
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Method
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Method
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BackgroundMethod
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“C (Bush et al., 1998), loneliness with the DJGLS ‐ 11 (de Jong Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985), subjective health with the Health Survey—Short Form (Hays et al., 1993), happiness with the Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999), and stress with three additional questions.”
Method
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Hwang, S. J., Hong, J. P., An, J. H., Kim, M. H., Jeong, S., & Chang, H. (2021) · 신경정신의학 · doi:10.4306/jknpa.2021.60.4.291 · Cited by 33
Culturally sensitive care for elderly immigrants through ethnic community health workers: design and development of a community based intervention programme in the Netherlands
Verhagen, I., Ros, W. J. G., Steunenberg, B., & de Wit, N. J. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-227 · Cited by 33
“Loneliness will be assessed by using the Jong Gierveld loneliness scale [26,27], a sufficiently reliable instrument for measuring loneliness among elderly [28] and used in studies among older people in the Netherlands [29].”
Method
Association between Sense of Loneliness and Quality of Life in Older Adults with Multimorbidity
Vespa, A., Spatuzzi, R., Fabbietti, P., Rosa, M. D., Bonfigli, A. R., Corsonello, A., Gattafoni, P., & Giulietti, M. V. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20032615 · Cited by 39
“(e) Loneliness Scale by Jenny de Jong Gierveld [55,56] consisting of eleven items; six are formulated negatively and five are formulated positively.”
Background
Negative psychological and physiological effects of social networking site use: The example of Facebook
Stangl, F. J., Riedl‬, R., Kiemeswenger, R., & Montag, C. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1141663 · Cited by 39
Level of Satisfaction of Older Persons with Their General Practitioner and Practice: Role of Complexity of Health Problems
Poot, A. J., den Elzen, W. P. J., Blom, J. W., & Gussekloo, J. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094326 · Cited by 32
“[16] This loneliness scale was restricted to people with an MMSE score $19.”
Method
Ambient Assisted Living and Health-Related Outcomes—A Systematic Literature Review
Queirós, A., Dias, A. A. D. C., Silva, A. G., & Rocha, N. P. (2017) · Informatics · doi:10.3390/informatics4030019 · Cited by 32
“• De Jong scale: an instrument designed to assess emotional and social loneliness [53].”
Background
The role of general psychosocial factors for the use of cancer screening—Findings of a population‐based observational study among older adults in Germany
Hajek, A., Bock, J., & König, H. (2017) · Cancer Medicine · doi:10.1002/cam4.1226 · Cited by 32
“Loneliness was quantified using a short version [28] (six items) of the wellvalidated De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale [29] (11 items).”
Method
The Development and Validation of the Thwarted Belongingness Scale (TBS) for Interpersonal Suicide Risk
Ma, J. S., Batterham, P. J., Calear, A. L., & Sunderland, M. (2019) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-019-09721-6 · Cited by 37
Strategies of socially isolated older adults: Mechanisms of emergence and persistence
Machielse, A., & Duyndam, J. (2020) · Journal of Aging Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jaging.2020.100852 · Cited by 34
“The latter relates to a subjective and negatively experienced discrepancy between the quality and quantity of existing relationships and a person's desires or standards with regard to relationships (De Jong Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985; Perlman & Peplau, 1981).”
Background
Young adults’ coping strategies against loneliness during the COVID-19-related quarantine in Greece
Golemis, A., Voitsidis, P., Parlapani, E., Nikopoulou, V. A., Tsipropoulou, V., Karamouzi, P., Giazkoulidou, A., Dimitriadou, A., Kafetzopoulou, C., Holeva, V., et al. (2021) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daab053 · Cited by 43
Do good self-managers have less physical and social resource deficits and more well-being in later life?
Steverink, N., & Lindenberg, S. M. (2008) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-008-0089-1 · Cited by 32
Effect evaluation of a two-year complex intervention to reduce loneliness in non-institutionalised elderly Dutch people
Honigh-de Vlaming, R., Haveman-Nies, A., Heinrich, J., van‵t Veer, P., & de Groot, L. C. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-984 · Cited by 40
“Validity and reliability of the scale [54,55,57] are reported to be satisfactory.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
An integrated home-based self-management system to support the wellbeing of older adults
Doyle, J., Kealy, A., Loane, J., Walsh, L. C., O’Mullane, B. A., Flynn, C., Macfarlane, A., Bortz, B., Knapp, R. B., & Bond, R. (2014) · Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Smart Environments · doi:10.3233/ais-140270 · Cited by 31
“Measures include the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) [53], the Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale (HADS) [70], the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA) [44], the 36 item short-form health survey (SF-36) Quality of Life questionnaire [66], the De Jong scale of emotional and social lonelines…”
The Longitudinal Association between Psychological Factors and Health Care Use
Bock, J., Hajek, A., & König, H. (2017) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.12679 · Cited by 31
“Loneliness was operationalized using a short version (Gierveld and Van Tilburg 2006) of the validated 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (Gierveld and Kamphuls 1985).”
Method
Effects of Laughter Therapy on Life Satisfaction and Loneliness in Older Adults Living in Nursing Homes in Turkey: A Parallel Group Randomized Controlled Trial
Alıcı, N. K., & BAHÇELİ, P. Z. (2020) · Rehabilitation Nursing · doi:10.1097/rnj.0000000000000266 · Cited by 37
Does Voluntary Association Participation Boost Social Resources?
van Ingen, E. J., & Kalmijn, M. (2010) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2010.00704.x · Cited by 31
Evidence that the impact of hearing impairment on psychosis risk is moderated by the level of complexity of the social environment
van der Werf, M., van Winkel, R., van Boxtel, M. P. J., & van Os, J. (2010) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2010.05.020 · Cited by 31
Depressive symptoms and loneliness among early adolescents: a psychometric network analysis approach
Grygiel, P., Dolata, R., Humenny, G., & Muszyński, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13876 · Cited by 36
Análisis de la Escala de Soledad de De Jong Gierveld mediante el modelo de Rasch
Buz, J., & Prieto, G. (2013) · Universitas Psychologica · doi:10.11144/javeriana.upsy12-3.aesd · Cited by 34
Changes in admission to long-term care institutions in the Netherlands: comparing two cohorts over the period 1996–1999 and 2006–2009
Alders, P., Comijs, H. C., & Deeg, D. J. H. (2016) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-016-0393-0 · Cited by 30
“The loneliness measure contains 11 statements about loneliness, with a scale from 0 (=no loneliness) to 11 (=severe loneliness) (de Jong Gierveld and Kamphuis 1985).”
Sensor-Driven Detection of Social Isolation in Community-Dwelling Elderly
Goonawardene, N., Toh, X., & Tan, H.-P. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58536-9_30 · Cited by 30
“Second, loneliness of elderly was subjec‐ tively measured using the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale [3].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Obesity and loneliness. Findings from a longitudinal population‐based study in the second half of life in Germany
Hajek, A., & König, H. (2018) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12375 · Cited by 32
Comparison of a group-delivered and individually delivered lifestyle-integrated functional exercise (LiFE) program in older persons: a randomized noninferiority trial
Jansen, C.-P., Nerz, C., Kramer-Gmeiner, F., Labudek, S. E., Klenk, J., Dams, J., König, H., Clemson, L. M., Becker, C., & Schwenk, M. (2018) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-018-0953-6 · Cited by 33
“It will be assessed using the Exercise Adherence Rating Scale (EARS) [63] as part of the monthly-returned fall calendar.”
BackgroundInfluential
Mobile Application Use and Loneliness among Older Adults in the Digital Age: Insights from a Survey in Hong Kong during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Yang, C., Lai, D. W. L., Sun, Y., Ma, C.-Y., & Chau, A. K. C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19137656 · Cited by 31
Análisis factorial confirmatorio de la escala de soledad de De Jong Gierveld en personas mayores españolas
Buz, J., Litago, J. D. U., & Polo, M. E. (2014) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.30.2.148371 · Cited by 36
“We applied the 11-item DJGLS (de Jong Gierveld & Kamphuis, 1985).”
Influential
The impact of poor insight on the course of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in patients receiving naturalistic treatment
Visser, H. A. D., van Megen, H. J. G. M., van Oppen, P., Hoogendoorn, A. W., Glas, G. G., Neziroglu, F. A., & van Balkom, A. J. L. M. (2017) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2017.03.003 · Cited by 30
Psychometric Evaluation of the Serbian Version of the Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale
Jovanović, V., & Žuljević, D. (2011) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9916-4 · Cited by 34
The first evaluation of a Mobile application to encourage social participation for community-dwelling older adults
Jansen-Kosterink, S. M., Bergsma, J., Francissen, A., & Naafs, A. (2020) · Health and Technology · doi:10.1007/s12553-020-00430-9 · Cited by 28
Factorial Structure and Measurement Invariance of the PANAS in Spanish Older Adults
Buz, J., Pérez-Arechaederra, D., Pulido, R. F., & Litago, J. D. U. (2015) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2015.6 · Cited by 31
Bidirectional associations between loneliness and problematic internet use: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies
Zhang, Y., Li, J., Zhang, M., Bote, A. I., & Jia, F. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107916 · Cited by 35
Prevalence of loneliness and social isolation amongst individuals with severe mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Hajek, A., Gyasi, R. M., Pengpid, S., Peltzer, K., Kostev, K., Soysal, P., Smith, L., Jacob, L., Veronese, N., & König, H. (2025) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796025000228 · Cited by 37
“Some studies used the UCLA tool (Hughes et al. , 2004), the DJG tool (Gierveld and Tilburg, 2006; De Jong-Gierveld and Kamphuls, 1985) and single-item tools.”
Introducing a rasch-type anthropomorphism scale
Ruijten, P. A. M., Bouten, D. H. L., Rouschop, D. C. J., Ham, J. R. C., & Midden, C. J. H. (2014) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1145/2559636.2559825 · Cited by 31
“One model that mathematically describes these expectations is the Rasch model, which assumes that the trait to be measured is a one-dimensional latent variable [5, 6, 7].”
Background
Social exclusion in old age: a validation study in Hong Kong
Chou, K. (2017) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2017.1330870 · Cited by 28
“Other researchers combined some already validated scales, such as loneliness (De Jong-Gierveld & Kamphuls, 1985), multiple deprivation (Evandrou, 2000), and relative poverty (F€orster, 1994) to a scale of social exclusion they subsequently used in their studies (Saito et al., 2012; Scharf,…”
Method
Consequences of Interaction of Functional, Somatic, Mental and Social Problems in Community-Dwelling Older People
van Houwelingen, A. H., den Elzen, W. P. J., le Cessie, S., Blom, J. W., & Gussekloo, J. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0121013 · Cited by 28
“Feelings of loneliness were measured with the Loneliness Scale of De Jong Gierveld [23], an 11-item scale designed for the elderly population.”
MethodInfluential
Survey of health status and quality of life of the elderly in Poland and Croatia.
Knurowski, T., Lazić, D., van Dijk, J. P., Gecková, A. M., Tobiasz‐Adamczyk, B., & van den Heuvel, W. J. (2004) · PubMed · Cited by 28
The effectiveness of critical time intervention for abused women and homeless people leaving Dutch shelters: study protocol of two randomised controlled trials
Lako, D. A. M., de Vet, R., Beijersbergen, M. D., Herman, D. B., van Hemert, A. M., & Wolf, J. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-555 · Cited by 28
Caregiver burden: An increasing problem related to an aging cancer population
Jansen, L., Dauphin, S., De Burghgraeve, T., Schoenmakers, B., Buntinx, F., & van den Akker, M. (2021) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105319893019 · Cited by 30
Companion Animals and Loneliness: A Systematic Review of Quantitative Studies
Gilbey, A., & Tani, K. (2015) · Anthrozoös · doi:10.2752/089279315x14219211661615 · Cited by 79
Loneliness Interacts With Cognition in Relation to Healthcare and Financial Decision Making Among Community-Dwelling Older Adults
Stewart, C. C., Yu, L., Glover, C. M., Mottola, G. R., Bennett, D. A., Wilson, R. S., & Boyle, P. A. (2020) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnaa078 · Cited by 28
Correlates of emotional and social loneliness among community dwelling older adults in Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Wolfers, M. E. G., Stam, B. E., & Machielse, A. (2021) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2021.1875191 · Cited by 38
“Loneliness is generally described as a subjective feeling of a discrepancy between a person’s preferred and actual level and quality of social relationships (de Jong-Gierveld, 1987).”
MethodInfluential
Elderly people's quality of life in rural areas of Turkey and its relationship with loneliness and sociodemographic characteristics
Çam, C., Atay, E., Aygar, H., Öcal, E. E., Önsüz, M. F., Işıklı, B., & Metintaş, S. (2021) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12741 · Cited by 29

Authors: de Jong-Gierveld, J., & Kamphuls, F.
Affiliations: Free University, Amsterdam
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
Venue: Applied Psychological Measurement
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 1985-09
Volume: 9
Issue: 3
Pages: 289-299
ISSN: 0146-6216 (ISSN-L)
1552-3497
DOI: 10.1177/014662168500900307
OpenAlex: W1928146223
Cited by: 1,291
References: 35
Citations by year: 2026: 84 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 73 · 2019: 62 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 1.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
purl.umn.edu
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Applied Psychological Measurement (publishedVersion)
University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords: loneliness, Rasch model, scale development, latent trait models, dichotomous items, sense of belonging, classical test theory comparison

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The Development of a Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale

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